S1)F  i.  B.  HUl  ffiibraru 

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This  book  was  presented  by 

August  De  Hertogh 


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^JMN 


S00200320  7 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


100M/7-87— 871203 


THE  ART  OF 
THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

OR 

AMERICAN 
SYLVICULTURE 

By  C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.  D. 


Director  of  the  Biltmore  Forest  School,  Late   Forester  to  the 
Biltmore  Estate,  N.  C. 


THIRD  AND   REVISED   EDITION 


ALBANY 

THE  BRANDOW  PRINTING  CO. 

1912 


PREFACE 


The  handbook  on  "  The  art  of  the  second  growth "  or  on 
"American  Sylviculture,"  herewith  presented  in  an  enlarged  and 
revised  form,  is  the  third  issue  of  a  book  originally  styled 
"  Biltmore  Lectures  on  Sylviculture "  when  it  was  first  published 
in    1905. 

The  tasks  of  Sylviculture  confronting  the  American  foresters  are 
as  diversified  as  are  the  conditions  governing  them  in  a  country 
like  ours  which  presents,  within  its  two  billion  acres  of  land  area, 
the  widest  and  wildest  fluctuations  of  the  factors  framing  the  possi- 
bility, the  intensity,  and  the  methods  of  American  Sylviculture. 

The  call  for  Sylviculture  arose  in  the  West  at  a  time  at  which 
it  was  hoped  that  forest  plantations  might  influence  favorably  the 
adverse  climate  of   the  newly   opened  prairies. 

Since  that  time,  which  lies  in  the  seventies  of  the  last  century, 
prairial  Sylviculture  has  lost  ground,  while  its  importance,  for 
commonweals  as  well  as  for  owners  of  woodlands,  has  become,  in 
the  wooded  sections  of  the  country,  an  issue  of  American  Forestry. 

The  terms  "  Sylviculture "  and  "  Forestry "  are  by  no  means 
identical:  Forestry  comprises  any  and  all  work  connected  with 
forests,  inclusive  of  all  logging  and  lumbering;  Sylviculture  is  but 
that  part  of  Forestry  which  has  a  second  growth  for  its  object. 
As  long  as  there  was  at  hand  in  the  vast  stretches  of  primeval 
forests  an  abundance  of  first  growth,  there  could  exist  in  the 
w^ooded  states  but  little  use  for  "  the  art  of  the  second  growth." 

No  forester  lives  who  has  enjoyed  a  world's  experience  in  Sylvi- 
culture; the  forester's  experience  is  local,  necessarily;  a  writer 
of  a  book  on  Sylviculture  is  apt  to  apply  his  local  observations  to 
the  second  growths  developing  in  all  the  48  states  of  the  Union. 
I  have  tried,  in  the  pages  foimd  within  the  covers  of  this  book, 
to  avoid  generalisations  based  on  a  local  experience,  and  to  write 


PREFACE 

a  handbook  useful  to  the  forester  working  in  a  second  growth  or 
for  a  second  growtli  anywhere  in  this  country. 

Necessarily,  the  majority  of  my  own  work  in  Sylviculture  was 
embraced  by  the  15  years  during  which  I  had  charga  of  a  vast  area 
of  woodlands  in  western  North  Carolina.  It  was  my  good  fortune 
to  be  confronted,  within  this  area,  by  a  large  diversity  of  conditions. 
There  were  3,000  acres  of  abandoned  farmland,  which  I  have  been 
insLrumental  in  clothing  with  a  second  growth;  there  were  10,000 
acres  of  woodlands,  cut-over,  burned  over,  and  neglected  before  I 
took  charge,  which  were  to  be  converted  into  cultured  forests;  and 
there  was  the  "  Pisgah  Forest,"  primeval  woodlands  extending  over 
100,000  acres,  situated  beyond  the  reach  of  the  axe,  and  of  little 
value,  extending  from  the  valley  of  the  French  Broad  River  at 
2,000  feet  elevation  to  the  Balsam  Mountains  at  6,000  feet  eleva- 
tion. The  cut-over  woodlands  are  typical,  from  the  sylvic  stand- 
point, for  the  Piedmont  region  of  the  South;  the  Pisgah  Forest  is 
typical  for  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  Appalachians. 

For  brevity's  sake,  these  types  of  conditions  are  referred  to  in 
the  following  pages  by  the  terms  "  Biltniore  "  and  "Pisgah  Forest  ' 
respectively. 

Frequent  reference  is  made,  also,  to  the  German  forests,  wherein 
I  have  spent  the  first  nine  years  of  my  career  as  a  forester;  to 
the  Adirondacks  to  which  I  was  introduced  by  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow, 
Gifford  Pinchot,  and  C.  R.  Pettis,  and  which  I  am  visiting  annually 
accompanied  by  the  students  of  the  Biltmore  Forest  School  having 
its  spring  quarters  in  the  heart  of  the  Adirondacks.  Reference  is 
further  made,  frequently,  to  Michigan,  where  the  Biltmore  Forest 
School  has  its  summer  camp  at  Cadillac,  Mich.,  and  to  Oregon  where 
the  Biltmore  Forest  School  sojourns  at  Marshfield  during  the  fall 
of  every  year.  The  directorate  of  the  Biltmore  Forest  School,  a 
forest  school  living  in  the  woods  of  the  North,  South,  East  and 
West,  has  forced  me  to  become  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
possibilities  of  Sj'lviculture  in  more  than  one  forest  region.  It  is 
these  facts  which  lead  me  to  hope  that  I  am  submitting  to  the 
reader  a  book  on  American,  and  not  on  local  Sylviculture. 

I  should  have  liked  immensely  to  insert  in  this  book  a  large 
number  of  pictures  illustrative  of  the  matters  and  things  therein 
described.  Unfortunately,  the  funds  at  my  command  did  not  allow 
of  the  additional  expense  which  the  extensive  use  of  illustrations 
would  have  involved. 

This  book  on  "  The  art  of  the  second  growth "  is  the  seventh 
part  of  an  "  American  Encyclopedia  of  American  Forestry  "  written 
and  rewritten  by  me  in  the  course  of  the  last  fourteen  years.  The  six 
4 


PREFACE 

remaining  parts  of  American  forestry  which  I  have  treated  hereto- 
fore, by  six  books  or  publications,  in  a  similar  manner,  are  analysed 
in  the  following  schedule: 

A.  Public  Forestry,  or  forestry  by  the  people,  treated  as 
Part  I,      Forest   Policy. 

B.  Private  Forestry,  or  forestry  for  the  owner,  treated  as 
Part  II,  Forest  Utilization,  the  art  of  logging  and  lumbering. 
Part  III,   Forest  Finance,  the  art  of  financial  calculations  in 

forestry. 
Part  IV,    Forest  Protection,  the  art  of  protecting  the  woods 

against  damage  by  fire,  insects,  fungi,  etc. 
Part  V,      Forest  Mensuration,  the  art  of  estimating  timber, 

of   measuring   the   growth   of   the   trees,   and   of 

lumber   inspection. 
Part  VI,    Forest    Management,    the    art    of    forest    working 

plans. 

The  last  part  is,  then, 
Part  VII,  Sylviculture,  the  art  of  the  second  growth. 

May  the  new  issue  of  the  present  book  on  Sylviculture  find  with 
the  American  lumberman  and  with  his  forester  a  better  reception 
than  that  accorded  to  the  original  edition!  And  may  it  assist  in 
the  redemption  of  the  American   Forests! 

C.  A.  SCHENCK. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  PARAGRAPHS 


CHAPTER  I. 

Foundations  of  Sylviculture. 
Paragraph. 

I.  Introduction. 
II.  Eeologic  factors  and  their  influence  on  the  sylva. 

III.  Influence  of  the   sylva  on  the   eeologic  factors. 

IV.  The  North  American  sylva. 

V.  General   definitions  and  explanations. 
VI.  Light  demanders  and  shade  bearers. 
VII.  Pure  versus  mixed  woods. 
VIII.  Dr.  Henry  Mayr's  fundamental  principles  of  sylviculture. 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Seed   Forest. 

IX.  Genesis  of  the  seed  forest. 
X.  The   seed. 

XL  Preparations  for  direct  seeding. 
XII.  Securing  and  preparing  the  seeds. 

XIII.  Direct  seeding. 

XIV.  Season  for  direct  seeding. 
XV.  Auxiliaries  to  direct  seeding. 

XVI.  Direct  seeding  of  the  broadleaved  species. 
XVII.  Direct  seeding  of  the  coniferous  species. 
XVIII.  Actual  planting  of  seedlings:   Introductory  remarks. 
XIX.  Criteria  of  good  seedlings. 
XX.  Age,  size  and  number  of  seedlings  used. 
XXI.  Lifting  seedlings  from  nursery  bed. 
XXII.  Transportation  of  seedlings. 
XXIII.  Common   methods   of  planting  seedlings. 
XXrV.  Special  methods  and  tools  used  for  planting  seedlings. 
XXV.  Season  for  planting  seedlings. 
XXVI.  Cultivation  of  plantations. 
XXVII.  Prairie  planting  in  particular. 
XXVIII.  Methods   of  obtaining  plants   for  planting. 
7 


SYNOrSIS    OF    PARAGRAPHS 

Paragraph. 

XXIX.  Permanent  nurseries  in  particular. 
XXX.  Seed  planting  in  seed  beds. 
XXXI.  Transplanting  in   transplanting  beds. 
XXXII.  Protection  of  nurseries. 

XXXIII.  Nursing  in  nurseries. 

XXXIV.  Special   nursery  methods  proclaimed  by   renowned  sylvi- 

culturists. 
XXXV.  Raising   and   planting   hardwood   seedlings. 
XXXVI.  Raising  and  planting  softwood  seedlings. 
XXXVII.  European  results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 

hardwoods. 
XXXVIII.  European  results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 
softwoods. 
XXXIX.  Difficulties  of  natural  seed  regeneration   (enesar). 

XL.  Age  of  trees  fit  for  natural  seed  regeneration   (enesar). 
XLI.  Types  of  natural  seed  regeneration   (enesar). 
XLII.  Types  in  which  lumbering  precedes  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 
XLIII.  Cleared  compartment  type. 
XLIV.  Cleared  strip  type. 
XLV.  Cleared  group  type. 
XLVI.  Cleared  selection  type. 
XLVII.  Types   in   which    lumbering   coincides    with   natural    seed 

regeneration. 
XLVIII.  Shelterwood  compartment  type. 
XLIX.  Shelterwood  strip  type. 
L.  Shelterwood  group  type. 
LI.  Shelterwood  selection  type. 

LII.  Types  in  Avhich  lumbering  follows  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 
LIII.  Advance  growth  compartment  type. 
LIV.  Advance  growth  strip  type. 
LV.  Advance  growth  group  type. 
LVI.  Advance  growth  selection  type. 

LVII.  Regeneration  of  valuable  species  by  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion  with,   amongst  and   into   companions   of   weedy 
character. 
LVIII.  Pedagogie  of  the  seed  forest. 
LIX.  Cleaning  in  seed  forests. 
LX.  Weeding  in  seed  forests. 
LXI.  Improvement  cutting  in  seed  forests. 
LXII.  Thinning  in  seed  forests. 

8 


SYNOPSIS    OF    PARAGRAPHS 

Paragraph. 

LXIII.  Pruning  in  seed  forests. 

LXIV.  Underplanting  in  seed  forests. 

LXV.  Key  to  the  forms  of  seed  forests. 

LXVI.  Critical  remarks   on  seed  forests. 

LXVII.  Seed  forests  by  species. 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Sprout  Forest. 

LXVIII.  Genesis  of  the  sprout  forests  and  its  types. 
LXIX.  Pedagogie   of  the   sprout   forests. 
LXX.  Key  to  the  forms  of  sprout  forests. 
LXXI.  Critical  remarks   on  sprout  forests. 
LXXII.  Sprout  forests  by  species. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Composite  Forest. 

LXXIII.  Genesis  of  the  composite  forest  and  its  types. 
LXXIV.  Pedagogie  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXV.  Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXVI.  Critical  remarks  on  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXVII.  Coppice  under  standards  by  species. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Propagation  of  Forest  Products  Other  Than  Wood  and  Timber, 
LXXVIII.  Raising  of  forest  by-products. 
LXXIX.  Combination  of  sylviculture  and  agriculture. 


SYLVICULTURE 


CHAPTER  I 

FOUNDATIONS  OF  SYLVICULTURE 
Paragraph  I.     Introduction. 

"  Sylviculture  "  comprises  all  human  activities  by  which  trees, 
wood,  bark,  and  any  other  forest  product  imaginable  are  raised  and 
tended.     Sylviculture  is  the  art  of  the  second  growth,  essentially. 

Sylviculture  was  practiced,  in  ancient  days,  for  park  or  for 
orchard  purposes.  The  first  writings  on  Sylviculture  proper  appear 
in  the  so-called  "  House  Father  Literature." 

Sylviculture  as  a  branch  of  forestry  was  developed  by  George 
L.  Hartig,  Henry  von  Cotta,  and  Christian  Hundeshagen,  a  hundred 
years  ago. 

European  standard  books  on  Sylviculture,  of  a  modern  char- 
acter, are  those  of  Charles  Heyer  (adapted  by  Sir  Wm.  Schlich  and 
Richard  Hess),  by  Charles  Gayer,  by  Henry  Mayr,  and  by  Wagner- 
Tuebingen. 

For  America,  the  teachings  of  European  Sylviculture  are  of 
no  more  direct  iise,  at  the  present  time,  than  Asiatic  teachings 
might  be.  The  economic  and  the  climatic  differences  between  the 
various  countries  are  such  as  to  require  different  methods  of  Sylvi- 
culture in  each  of  them.  Nevertheless,  the  ecologic  principles 
underlying  the  practice  of  Sylviculture  are  identical  all  the  world 
over. 

The  planting  of  forests,  on  a  large  scale,  is  out  of  the  question 
in  America,  for  the  time  being.  The  expense  of  planting  an  acre 
of  land  in  this  country  exceeds  frequently  the  price  at  which  an 
acre  of  merchantable  forest  may  be  purchased.  The  modern  owner 
of  woodlands  is  not  far-sighted  enoiigh — possibly  not  credulous 
enough — to  anticipate  the  arrival  of  German  prices  of  timber  for 
a  time  at  which  the  plantations  now  started  will  have  developed 
into  merchantable  trees. 

Assuming  that  the  trees  will  be  as  valuable  by  1980,  in  this 
country,  as  they  are  to-day  in  Germany,  France  and  England, 
11 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

forest  planting  should  be,  at  least,  as  remunerative  in  this  country 
^vhere  soil  values  are  low,  as  it  is  in  the  old  country  where  soil 
values  are   high. 

In  Germany,  too,  the  production  of  a  second  growth  by  human 
aid  was  not  thought  of  so  long  as  timber  and  fuel  wood  had  little 
value. 

When  the  value  of  a  product  increases,  arrives  the  time  at 
which  it  is  wisdom  to  produce  it. 

Sylviculture  will  be  practiced  in  the  United  States,  to  begin 
with,  here  and  there,  on  lands  where  the  conditions  for  it  are 
favorable.  As  the  years  go  past  it  will  .  expand  al!  over  the 
woodlands    of   the   L^nited   States. 

Sylviculture  considered  as  a  branch  of  the  science  of  forestry 
comprises  the   following  themes: 

A.  Ecologic   principles,   facts   and   definitions. 

B.  The  genesis,  or  the  birth  of  the  forest. 

C.  The  pedagogic,  or  the  tendance  of  the  forest. 

D.  The  sylvical  forms  of  the  forest. 

"Genesis,"  in  the  true  meaning  of  the  word,  is  the  act  of 
producing,  or  giving  birth  or  origin,  to  anything.  The  term 
"  genesis "  is  also  applicable  to  the  theories,  explanations  or  ac- 
counts of  the   origin  of  anything. 

"  Pedagogie "  comprises  the  principles  and  rules  pertaining  to 
the  training  of  the  young. 

The  terms  "  forest  genesis  "  and  "  forest  pedagogie  "  have  not 
met  with  a  favorable  reception  by  the  critics  of  the  first  and 
second  edition  of  the  present  book.  The  author  continues  to  use 
the  two  terms,  for  lack  of  better  substitutes,  in  his  lectures  at 
the  Biltmore  Forest  School  and  in  this  third  edition  of  his 
"  Sylviculture." 

In  the  discussion  of  themes  B,  C,  and  D,  a  distinction  is  made 
between   the   treatment   of: 

1.  Seed  forests. 

2.  Sprout  forests. 

3.  Composite   forests. 


Paragraph  II.     Ecologic    factors   and    their    in- 
fluence on   the  sylva. 

A.  Definition.— Plant  ecology  is  a  branch  of  botany  show- 
ing the   dependence   and   adaptation   of  plant   forms   and  plant  life 
on  and  to  the  surrounding  local  factors    (climate,  soil,  etc.). 
12 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

B.  Natural  laws  govern  the  organization  of  the  species 
and  regulate  the  communal  life  (symbiosis)  and  messmateship 
(commensalism)  of  individuate  with  their  own  kin,  with  relatives 
and  with  other  plants  belongings  to  the  same  household  and  feeding 
at  the  same  table. 

C.  Tlie  most  important  ecologic  factors  are: 

I.  Air.  Oxygen,  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  the  main  com- 
ponents of  air,  are  essential  for  plant  life.  The  relative  proportion 
of  the  two  integral  parts,  79%  N.,  21%  0.,  varies  but  little  with 
altitude,  latitude  and  elevation.  Salt  particles  in  the  air  near 
oceans  and  sulphuric  acid  in  the  air  near  smelter  works  are  in- 
jurious to  plant  life. 

II.  Light.     Intensity    depends    on: 

Season. 

Latitude. 

Altitude. 

Direct  insolation  is  said  to  be,  on  the  whole,  of  less  importance 
t|ian  diffused  light   (excepting  polar  regions). 

Light  is  not  required  for  germination  of  seeds.  Without  light, 
however,  there  is  no  assimilation,  and  hence  no  possibility  of  tree 
life.  Assimilation  increases  with  increasing  intensity  of  insolation; 
excessive  insolation  is,  however,  destructive.  For  each  species,  and 
for  each  stage  of  its  growth,  there  exists  a  certain  optimum,  mini- 
mum and  maximum  of  insolation  with  reference  to  the  possibilities 
of  its  success.  The  damaging  influence  of  excessive  insolation  is 
prevented  by  the  inner  organization  of  the  plant. 

The  duration  (number  of  days)  of  insolation  is  as  important  as 
the  intensity  of  insolation.  Within  the  individual  tree  the  lower 
branches  are  killed  gradually,  being  overshadowed  by  new  upper 
branches.  Without  light  no  bud;  without  bud  no  leafing  branch; 
without  new  leaves  annually  formed  no  limb  can  live. 

Within  one  and  the  same  species  a  tree  once  acquiring  superi- 
ority over  its  neighbors  is  apt  to  retain  superiority  until  death. 
Since  it  enjoys  more  light,  it  assimilates  better. 

Within  rival  species,  owing  to  a  greater  sensitiveness  of  chloro- 
phyl  and  thanks  to  a  more  favorable  inclination,  form  and  position 
of  the  leaves,  some  species  exceed  others  in  assimilation  and  vitality 
under  the  same  influx  of  light.  Shade  bearing  are  such  leaves  as 
assimilate  suflficiently  (so  as  to  bear  buds  at  the  axils)  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  but  little  diffused  light  chances  to  strike  them. 

Many  dicotyledonous  trees  form  a  so-called  "  leaf  mosaic,"  the 
lower  tiers  of  leaves  fitting  themselves  into  the  interstices  of  light 
13 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

left  in  the  upper  tiers.  Many  leaves  alter  their  inclination  toward 
the  sun  according  to  the  hourly  degree  of  insolation  (photo-metric 
movement).  The  epidermis  of  light  demanding  and  sun-exposed 
leaves  is  heavy,  leathery.  The  leaves  of  shade  bearers  are  thin  and 
wither  quickly  when  picked.  Light  demanding  leaves  are  often  shin- 
ing, reflecting  and  whitish,  so  especially  in  tropical  countries,  and 
the  leaf  stomata  are  deeply  sunk  into  the  surface.  On  the  same 
tree,  leaves  growing  in  the  shade  are  darker  than  those  growing  in 
the  light;  old  leaves  darker  than  young  ones. 

The  formation  of  spines  and  thorns  indicates  a  sun  plant;  hair 
or  down  are  usually  found  in  light  demanders  more  than  in  shade 
plants. 

III.  Heat. 

For  each  plant  and  for  each  step  of  its  development  can 
be  determined  a  minimum,  optimum  and  maximum  of  heat  required 
or  allowed.  Without  heat,  growth  is  impossible,  since  cell  division 
is  impossible.  The  formation  of  chlorophyll,  breathing,  assimila- 
tion, germination,  flowering,  fruiting  and  transpiration  depend  on 
heat.  The  distribution  of  the  genera  is  governed,  pre-eminently,  by 
heat. 

For  some  polar  plants,  life  is  possible  below  32  degrees  air 
temperature  Faht.  As  a  rule,  however,  plant  activity  begins  to  be 
observable  at  50  degrees  Faht. 

The  maximum  of  heat  compatible  with  plant  life  generally  lies 
below  115  degrees  Faht.  Excess  of  temperature  over  maximum  is 
more  disastrous  than  deficiency  of  heat  beloAV  minimum.  Plants, 
however,  temporarily  fortify  themselves  against  periodical  extremes: 

1.  By  non-freezing  cell  contents. 

2.  By  reduced  water  contents    (seed,  rosin). 

3.  By  lignification. 

4.  By  dropping  leaves  during  winter  or  during  period  of  exces- 
sive drought. 

5.  By  adequate  covers  (bark,  hairs,  bud  scales,  layers  rich  in 
air  cells,  reddish  color,  wrappings  formed  by  last  year's  leaves). 
These  covers,  at  least,  allow  the  plant  to  escape  the  dangers  of  ra'tlid 
changes  of  temperature. 

Short  periods  of  vegetation  and  long  periods  of  rest  result 
from  deficient  heat.  Hence  no  annual  plants  in  polar  regions. 
Short  shoots,  evergreen  leaves,  preparation  of  flow^ers  in  year  pre- 
ceding fruit  are  characteristic  of  a  polar  flora.  In  tropical  countries 
there  are  no  periods  of  rest  unless  determined  by  periods  of  drought. 
14 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

IV.  Moisture  of  air  and  precipitations. 
Water  is  at  hand 

a.  to  increase  the  toughness  of  wood  (imbibition  water  of 
cell  walls) ; 

b.  to  allow  of  solution  of  cell  contents   (cell  sap) ; 

c.  to  serve  as  plant  food,  through  assimilation; 

d.  to  allow  of  osmotic  movement  of  sap; 

e.  to  assist  in  photometric  movement  of  leaves  (through  swell- 
ing and  irritation) ; 

f.  to  reduce  rapidity  of  change  of  temperature  by  evaporation. 
Some   lichens    survive   a   process   of   absolute   drying.     Lack   of 

moisture  causes  crippled  growth,  and  frequently  subterranean 
forests    (mesquit). 

After  Henry  Mayr,  the  minimum  of  moisture  compatible  with 
tree  growth  is  two  inches  of  rainfall  and  fifty  per  cent,  of  relative 
humidity  during  the  period  of  vegetation. 

Phanerogamous  plants  are  unable  to  absorb  water  directly 
through  the  epidermis,  obtaining  it  instead  through  the  spongiolse 
of  the  roots  and,  in  gaseous  form,  through  the  stomata  of  the 
leaves.  Mosses  and  lichens,  however,  absorb  water  directly  through 
the  epidermis.  The  hygroscopic  power  of  a  dead  cover  of  mosses 
on  the  ground  equals  that  of  a  live  cover. 

Wet  climate  creates  evergi-een  woods  (Pacific  coast  and  ant- 
arctic forests  of  South  America). 

A  dry  climate  gives  rise  to  annual  species,  to  a  distinct  period 
of  rest,  to  rapid  flowering  and  fruiting. 

Precipitations  equally  distributed  over  the  twelve  months  of  an 
entire  year  and  precipitations  falling  during  a  few  weeks  result  in 
entirely  diff"erent  floras.  Rain  in  summer  stimulates  growth  much 
more  than  rain  in  winter.  De  Candolle  divides  our  globe  according 
to  moisture  and  heat  and  on  the  basis  of  the  resulting  floral  differ- 
ences, into  five  regions. 

1.  Hydromegathermal  region  (water  great  heat).  Mean  annual 
temperature  over  68  degrees  Faht.  (Amazon  river  region,  wet  tropi- 
cal zone). 

2.  Xerophilous  (dry  loving)  region.  The  region  and  borders  of 
arid  deserts,  prairies,  svmny  slopes,  etc.,  exhibiting  a  flora  very 
modest  in  moisture  requirements. 

3.  Mesothermal  (medium  heat)  region,  having  mean  tempera- 
ture of  59  to  68  degrees  Faht.    (northern  Florida,  etc.). 

4.  Microthermal   (little  heat)    region  of  32  to  59  degrees  Faht. 

5.  Hecistothermal  (least  heat)  region  of  less  than  32  degrees 
Faht. 

15 


A  M  K  K  1  C  A  ::     SYLVICULTURE 

The  most  important  representative  of  a  xerophilous  character 
is  the  i'ellow  Pine.  The  hecistothermal  zone  shows  Spruces,  Birches, 
Cottonwoods. 

V.  Wind. 

Wind  brings  moisture  and  drought,  heat  and  cold;  it  covers 
or  uncovers  vegetation  with  sand  or  snow  drifts,  tumbling,  at 
prior  geographical  eras,  whole  mountains  into  the  valleys  (Loess 
formation).  Severe  wind  dwarfs  tree  growth  and  forces  branches 
to  grow  in  leeward  direction  only.  The  influence  of  a  slight  ob- 
struction, preventing  the  access  of  wind  at  high  latitudes,  is  splen- 
didly illustrated  by  the  growth  of  Spruce  and  Fir  on  Pisgah  Ridge. 
On  high  mountains,  the  possibility  of  gi'owth  is  often  entirely 
determined  by  wind. 

Wind  is  responsible  for  the  crooked  growth  of  Catalpa  in  the 
prairies,  the  shake  in  Hemlock  on  exposed  ridges,  the  fungus  dis- 
eases in  many  trees. 

The  rainfall  and,  consequently,  the  existence  of  forests  depends 
on  the  moist  sea  winds  supplied  by  the  Pacific,  the  Atlantic,  the 
Gulf  and  the  Great  Lakes.  A  cross-section  through  North  America 
at  the  latitude  of  Lake  Michigan  and  Portland,  Oregon,  shows  the 
inter-aependence  between  the  lowest  gaps  in  the  mountain  chains 
and  the  forest  on  the  next  mountain  chain  lying  to  leeward.  For 
instance:  lowest  gap  in  Coast  Range  at  3,000  feet  above  sea  level; 
no  forest  in  Cascades  below  3,000  feet;  lowest  gap  in  Cascades  at 
4,000  feet  above  sea  level;  no  forest  in  Blue  Mountains  below  4,000 
feet;  lowest  gap  in  Blue  Mountains  at  5,000  feet  above  sea  level; 
no  forest  in  Rockies  below  5,000  feet. 

The  east  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  Cascades,  Blue  Mountains 
and  Rockies,  below  the  gaps  in  these  chains  of  mountains,  show 
little  or  no  forest,  and  the  lowlands  to  the  east  of  the  mountain 
chains  are  deserts  and  prairies. 

Moist  sea  winds,  after  passing  one  chain  of  mountains  allow 
the  forest  to  grow  on  the  next  chain  only  above  the  altitude  of  the 
gaps  in  the  first  chain. 

Picea  alba  and  dwarf  pines  like  Pinus  pungens  show  great 
strength  in  resisting  wind.  In  the  West  Tsuga  mertensiana,  Pinus 
albicaulis,  further  Western  Juniper  rank  first  among  the  trees  brav- 
ing severe  storms. 

Wind  is  essential  for  the  breathing  and  for  the  perspiration  of 

leaves  and  bark;  for  driving  pollen  on  stigma  to  fertilize  the  seed; 

for  trimming  the  branches,  thus  forming  clear  boles;  for  distributing 

seed.      The    investigations    conducted   by    Fliche    (French    forester) 

16 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

have  yielded,  however,  the  astonishing  result  that  winged  seeds 
travel  much  more  slowly  than  heavy  seeds  coveted  by  birds.  Fliche 
gives  the  following  number  of  years  as  required  by  trees  traveling 
from  Nancy   to  Paris,  a  distance  of  160  miles: 

Beech 18640  years. 

Chestnut 12920  years. 

Pine 48G80  years. 

Sarvis 1330  to  2000  years. 

VI.  Structure  of  soil. 

Soil  consists  of  natural  rock;  or  of  rock  disintegrated  under 
the  influence  of  water,  frost,  heat,  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  lichens, 
bacteria;  or  of  material  deposited  by  water,  wind  or  glaciers. 

The  components  of  soil  are: 

a.  Soil   skeleton,   large  grains,  principally   quartz   and   stones. 

b.  Soil  flesh,  minute  semi-soluble  particles, — the  mud  of  the  rivers. 

c.  Soil  fat,  the  humose  particles  giving  the  soil  a  dark  color. 

d.  Soil  blood,  the  air  and  water,  filling  the  pores  of  the  soil. 
The  size  of  the  pores  determines  the  capillary  capacity. 

According  to  the  resistance  which  soil  off'ers  to  spade  or  plow, 
we  distinguisli  the  following  classes: 
Light  soil; 
Loose  soil; 
Binding  soil; 
Heavy  soil; 
Stiflf  soil. 

VII.  Air  in  the  soil. 

Roots  require  oxygen  for  breathing.  Like  fish,  they  die  from  a 
lack  as  well  as  from  a  superabvmdance  of  oxygen.  Subterranean 
air  is  rich  in  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  roots,  fungi,  bacteria, 
animals.  Swamp  soil  contains  little  air.  Hence  no  species  find  a 
living    in    swamps    but    those    which    have    large    inner    air    ducts. 

Prairial  soil  is  naturally  so  compact  that  it  contains  little 
oxygen. 

VIIL  Water  in  the   soil. 
It  occurs: 

a.  Chemically  bound  to  minerals  and  salts. 

b.  Absorbed  by  the  hygroscopicity  of  the  soil. 

c.  Raised  by  the  capillary  power  of  the  soil. 

d.  As  ground  water, — lakes,  swamps,  brooks  being  merely  areas 

of  open  ground  water. 
The   size  of  the  pores  and  the  presence   of   humus  govern   the 
17 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

intensity  and  rapidity  of  water  obtention  and  retention.  Sand, 
for  instance,  allows  water  to  enter  into  its  large  pores  quickly,  but 
gives  it  up  rapidly  as  well.  Wet,  moist,  fresh,  dry  and  arid  soil 
are  distinguislied. 

The  degree  of  the  wetness  of  the  soil  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance for  tree  growth.  At  its  Southern  limit,  a  species  may  grow 
but  along  watercourses.  The  water  in  the  soil  dissolves  the  mineial 
salts  and  seems  to  be  of  great  influence  on  the  bacterial  life  in 
the  soil. 

iX.  Heat  in  the  soil. 

It  is  derived  from  the  earth's  own  temperature,  from  chemical 
processes  in  the  soil  (notably  fermentation)  and  from  the  sun  rays. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  angle  of  insolation,  the  duration  of  insolation, 
the  heat  capacity,  the  color,  the  porosity  of  the  soil  and  its 
vegetable  cover  serve  as  influencing  factors. 

A  cold  root  has  no  pumping  power.  Fine  root  fibres  die  from 
temperatures  which  fine  oranches  easily  withstand.  The  actual 
influence  of  the  heat  in  the  soil  on  tree  gi'owth  is  practically  un- 
known. The  opening  of  the  buds  in  spring  and  the  fall  of  the 
leaves  in  autumn  are  probably  connected  with  the  thermic  changes 
occurring  in  the  various  strata  of  the  soil. 

X.  Depth  of  soil. 

Flat  rooted  species  easily  obtain  the  superiority  over  tap- 
rooted  species  on  shallow  soil.  Tree  roots,  however,  are  not  apt 
to  penetrate  to  a  depth  greater  than  six  feet.  Shallow  soil  in- 
creases danger  from  fire,  drought,  storm.  A  tap  rooted  species, 
planted  on  shallow  soil,  produces  but  a  stunted  form.  Shallow 
soil  is  well  adapted  to  the  coppice  system,  in  case  of  broad  leaved 
tap  rooted  species. 

XI.  Food  in  the  soil. 

A  tree,  like  a  crystal,  is  composed  of  various  chemical  elements. 
The  available  amount  of  that  necessary  element  which  happens  to 
occur  in  the  relatively  smallest  degree  determines,  in  both  crystal 
and  plant,  the  rate  of  growth  actually  taking  place  (Liebig''s  law). 
The  superabundance  of  one  component,  even  of  a  necessary  com- 
ponent, prevents,  on  the  other  hand,  the  local  existence  of  many 
species. 

The  ten  necessary  elements  found  within  a  plant  in  solid,  liquid 
or  gaseous  condition  are  0,  H,  C,  P,  Fe,  K,  Mg,  Ca,  N,  S, 

"  Roots  search  food  as  if  they  had  eyes,"  is  a  rule  easily  proven 
in   any  nursery. 

18 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

XII.  Species  of  soil, 

a.  Rock.  Most  important  rock  formations  are:  Granite,  gneiss, 
limestone,  sandstone,  slate   and  trap. 

Vertical  stratification  facilitates  decomposition  and  tree  growth. 
The  various  species  of  rock  differ  in  hardness,  porosity,  heat  con- 
duction, and  above  all  in  soluble  mineral  contents. 

b.  Quartz  sand.  Quartz  sand  is  unproductive  when  pure,  since 
silicic  acid  fails  to  be  digested  by  the  roots  and  fails  to  react  with 
the  acids  and  radicals  usually  found  in  the  soil.  Quartz  sand  is 
loose,  has  small  hygroscopicity,  small  capillarity  and  small  heat- 
retaining  capacity.  It  is  hot  during  the  day  and  cold  during 
the  night. 

c.  Lime.  Lime  when  pure  is  a  poor  soil,  although  not  quite  as 
dry  and  hot  as  sand.  Lime,  however,  mixed  with  loam  and  clay 
(so-called  marl)  forms  an  extremely  productive  soil. 

d.  Clay.  Clay  has  great  absorbing  and  hygroscopic  power.  It 
is  wet  and  cold.    Main  components  are  aluminum-silicates. 

e.  Loam.  Loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay — the  usual  soil 
in  agricultvire  and  forestry.  It  is  usually  colored  by  iron  (red 
loam  at  Biltmore).  We  speak  of  a  sandy  loam  or  of  a  loamy  sand 
according  to  the  prevalence  of  one  or  the  other  component.  Loam 
soil  exhibits  a  happy  medium  of  qualities  favorable  to  tree  growth. 

f.  Humus.  Humus  results  from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matter  under  co-operation  of  bacteria,  fungi,  rain  worms 
(Darwin),  larvae.  Humus  forms  a  solvent  of  mineral  plant  food. 
A  bad  conductor  of  heat  and  cold,  it  prevents  rapid  changes  of 
temperature  in  soil,  has  great  hygroscopicity  and  great  water- 
retaining  power  and  is  a  preventive  to  evaporation  of  soil  moisture. 

Mild  forest  humus  shows  a  basic  reaction,  whilst  the  sour 
humus  of  the  swamps  shows  an  acid  reaction. 

Unfavorable  to  the  trees  is  the  dust  humus  formed  by  many 
Ericaceae. 

XIII.  Physical  versus  chemical  qualities  of  soil. 
Agriculture  withdraws  food  but  from  the  top  layer  of  the  soil. 

It  deprives  that  top  layer  of  its  rarest  and  most  valuable  com- 
ponents, by  removing  an  annual  crop  of  grain  excessively  rich  in 
nitrates,  phosphates  and  potash.  The  porosity,  and  through  it  the 
water  capacity  and  the  heat  capacity  of  the  soil,  are  readily  con- 
trolled on  the  field  by  the  plow.  It  is  necessary  in  agriculture,  in 
the  long  run,  to  return  to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  fertilizer  as' 
many  pounds  of  nitrates,  phosphates  and  potash  annually  as  have 
been  removed  in  the  shape  of  crops  from  a  given  acre  of  land. 
19 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

The  productiveness  of  agriculture  depends,  above  all,  on  the 
chemical  qualities  of  the  soil  tilled.  A  crop  of  trees,  on  the  other 
hand,  takes  from  the  soil  but  little,  since  the  tree  consists  mainly 
of  C,  0,  H,  or  since  wood  is  nothing  but  air  solidified  by  sunshine. 
The  phosphates,  nitrates  and  potash  absorbed  by  the  tree  are 
returned  to  the  soil  by  the  fall  of  branches,  leaves,  seeds,  flowers, 
etc. 

The  traces  of  chemical  fertility  locally  removed  in  the  shape 
of  logs  are,  in  addition,  counterbalanced  by  the  decomposing  influ- 
ence on  the  rock   exercised  by  roots,  root-bacteria,  and  enzyms. 

Hence  it  is  not  likel}'  that  a  rotation  of  crops,  such  as  is 
required  in  agriculture,  has  any  advantages  in  the  case  of  forestry. 
In  primeval  vpoods,  we  know  that  Nature  allows  a  species  to 
succeed  itself.  It  must  be  admitted,  howeverj  that  a  short-living 
crop  of  weeds  (fire  cherries,  aspens,  briars,  herbaceous  weeds) 
intervenes    frequently    between    successive   generations   of    trees. 

The  physical  qualities  of  the  soil  preeminently  influence  the  tree 
species  and  the  rate  of  its  growth.  The  chemical  qualities  of  the 
soil  play  the  most  potent  role  in  the  case  of  agricultural  species. 

Soil  fit  for  agriculture  is  not  necessarily  a  good  forest  soil 
(prairies).  Soil  fit  for  forestry  (strong  North  slopes)  is  often 
utterly  unfit   for   farming. 

XIV.  Soil  covers. 

Soil  covers  are  either  dead  or  living.  Dead  soil  covers  are 
snow,  debris  of  leaves  and  twigs.  Living  soil  covers  consist  of 
mosses,  grasses,  etc. 

After  K.  Boehmerle,  a  living  moss-cover  retards  the  growth  of 
young  trees,  during  a  dry  season.  The  moss  absorbs  the  larger 
part  of  the  precipitations.  During  .a  wet  season,  the  moss-cover 
may  be  useful  by  storing  the  surplus  of  moisture.  It  seems  advis- 
able to  remove  the  moss  from  the  woods  in  rotations  of  about  three 
years.     Compare  C.  G.   F.,   1910,  page  523. 

Snow  keeps  the  soil  warm,  prevents  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, prevents  young  plants  covered  by  it  from  perspiring,  prevents 
heaving  of  plants  by  frost. 

The  debris  on  the  ground  feed  millions  of  animals  and  fungi; 
the}'  harbor,  on  the  other  hand,  mice,  larvae  and  other  enemies  of 
plant  growth.  Debris  frequently  prevent  reproduction  from  self- 
sown  seed  and  increase  the  severity  of  forest  fires.  Living,  as  well 
as  dead  soil  covers,  influence  the  evaporation  of  moisture,  the 
porosity  of  the  soil  and  the  drainage. 
20 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

XV.  Life  in  the  soil  (Compare  Swiss  L.  F.  F.  1904,  May  and 
June ) . 

The  soil  lives  like  a  plant  or  an  animal,  since  it  shows  con- 
tinuous changes  of  form  and  of  composition.  Very  little,  however, 
is  known  of  the  life  and  the  interdependence  of  millions  of  live 
individuals  found  in  the  soil.  Certain  it  seems  that  tree  growth  i^ 
bound  on  the  presence  of  certain  fungi  and  bacteria  living  on  the 
roots     (Mycorrhiza,    important,    notably,    for    shade-bearing    trees). 

Most  important  are  the  bacteria  capable  of  digesting  the 
nitrogen  of  the  subterranean  air.  Leguminous  plants  (Clover,  Black 
Locust)  are  beset  with  root  knobs,  containing  bacteria  busily 
engaged  in  the  assimilation  of  nitrogen.  The  hypliae  of  a  fungus 
called  Frankia  play  a  similar  role  on  the  root  knobs  of  Alder  and 
Sweet  Fern.  After  P.  C  Mueller,  Spruce  will  grow  on  poor  sand 
lacking  nitrogen  if  Pine  is  mixed  with  it,  furnishing  nitrogen 
through  its  mycorrhiza. 

At  Biltmore,  Cherry  plantations  have  succeeded  surprisingly 
well  when  there  was  an  admixture  to  them  of  Yellow  Pines. 

The  maximum  number  of  bacteria  is  said  to  be  found  two  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  none  exist  below  six  feet. 
The  number  of  bacteria  per  pound  of  soil  varies  from  one  hundred 
million  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  million. 

Important,  too,  in  plant  ecology  is  the  life  of  the  larger  animals 
(worms,  insects,  nematodes,  centipeds)  changing  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter of  the  soil  into  manure  proper,  mixing  mineral  soil  and  vegeta- 
ble matter,  increasing  the  porosity,  drainage  and  aeration  and 
neutralizing  the  acids  of  the  soil.  Shade,  protection  from  wind 
and  sufficient  moisture  are  beneficial  to  animal  life  in  the  soil. 


Paragraph  III.     Influence   of   the    sylva  on  the 
ecolo^ic  factors. 

The  influence  exerted  by  the  forest  on  "the  local  climate  (heat, 
air,  precipitations,  etc.)  is  dwelt  upon  in  the  lectiu-es  on  forest 
policy. 

Whilst   the   ecologic   factors   shown   in   the  previous   paragraph 

exhibit  the  important  influence  which  the  soil  has  on  the  tree,  there 

exists  at  the  same  time,  although  to  a  lesser  degree,  an  influence 

of   the   tree   on  the   soil.      This   influence   is   invariably  such   as   to 

21 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

facilitate  life  to  the  tree  itself  and  to  its  progeny.      The  production 
of  humns  is  the  main  source  of  that  influence. 
Governing   factors   are: 

A.  Leaf  canopy  overhead.  Evergreen  as  well  as  deciduous 
woods  return  to  the  soil  by  the  leaf  fall  annually  a  large  amount 
of  dead  matter  readily  assimilable.  Shade  bearers  furnish  a  better 
humus  than  light  demanders,  excluding,  at  the  same  time,  intensive 
insolation,  so  that  the  decomposition  of  the  leaf  carpet  and  the 
evaporation  of  the  soil  moisture  is  favorably  retarded. 

A  hvunus  formed  by  Beech,  Maple  and  Chestnut  is  considered 
especially  good.  Beech  is  called  abroad,  justly  or  unjustly,  the 
"  Mother  of  the  Forest,"  owing  to  its  soil-improving  qualities.  The 
leaf  canopy  is  particularly  dense  during  the  thicket  and  the  pole- 
wood  stage.  Even  light  demanders,  whilst  young,  improve  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  At  a  higher  age,  when  the  light  demanders 
place  themselves  far  apart  one  from  another  (say  less  than  100 
trees  per  acre),  the  humus  on  the  gr-ound  is  destroyed  frequently, 
being  replaced  by  a  dense  and  impermeable  matting  of  grasses  or 
shrubs. 

Amongst  the  conifers.  Yellow  and  White  Pine  seem  to  furnish 
the  best  humus.      Spruce  humus  is  too  waxy. 

B.  Rate  of  disintegration  of  leaves. 

This  rate  depends  on  insolation,  on  heat  capacity  of  soil  (sand 
versus  clay),  on  atmosplieric  humidity.  Usually  the  decomposition 
of  the  leaf  fall  takes  place  within  two  or  three  years.  The  thin 
leaves  of  the  shade  bearers  decompose  quicker  than  the  heavy  leaves 
of  the  light  demanders.  The  atmospheric  moisture  of  high  alti- 
tudes causes  an  accumulation  of  large  quantities  of  leaves.  In  the 
tropics,  there  is  little  litter  on  the  ground. 

C.  Root   system. 

It  is  the  decaying  root  which  allows  the  precipitations  to  trickle 
down  to  the  lower  strata  of  soil.  Hence  tap  rooters  seem  more 
efficient  than  flat  rooters  in  converting  a  rapid  surface  drainage  into 
a  slow  underground  drainage.  Decomposing  the  rock  by  chemical 
action,  the  tap  root  foi'ces  it  to  yield  its  soluble  salts. 

D.  Soil  improvement  through  root-bacteria  and  fimgi. 
The  upper  layers  of  forest  soil  are  densely  peopled  with  the 

hyphae  of  basidiomycetes,  living  on  humus.  Leguminous  trees 
(Locust,  Kentucky  Coffee  tree,  etc.)  by  their  root-bulbs  increase  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  Alders  seem  to  act  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. On  abandoned  fields  in  Pisgah  forest  the  soil  is  improved  by 
22 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

Sumac,  Sassafras,  Locust,  etc.  These  species  act  as  ushers  for 
more  exacting  forest  growth,  improving  the  physical  conditions  of 
the  soil.      Little  is  known  about  the  nature  of  the  improvement. 


Paragraph  IV.     The  North  American  sylva. 

The  northern  limit  of  the  forest  coincides  with  the  isothermal 
line  of  30  degrees  Faht.,  which  lies  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent 
at  Co  degrees  latitude  in  Alaska  (under  influence  of  the  Japan  cur- 
rent), and  on  the  east  side  at  57  degrees  latitude  in  Labrador  and 
at  the  Hudson  Bay. 

The  tropical  forest  shows  no  seasons.  Its  species  are  evergreen. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  found  at  the  extreme  southern  point  of 
Florida  and  of  Texas. 

The  sub-tropical  forest  is  characterized  by  the  evergreen  broad- 
leaved  trees,  and  is  the  zone  of  rice  and  oranges,  extending  in  east- 
ern North  America  to  35  degrees,  in  western  North  America  to  40 
degrees,  latitude. 

The  moderately  warm  forest  region  is  the  zone  of  the  broad- 
leaved  deciduous  trees,  of  corn,  vine  and  wheat. 

The  moderately  cold  forest  region  is  that  too  cold  for  the 
production  of  corn. 

In  North  Carolina  a  trip  from  the  coast  to  the  high  Balsams 
leads  the  traveler  from  the  northernmost  limit  of  the  sub-tropical 
through  the  moderately  warm  forest  region  into  the  southernmost 
limit  of  the  moderately  cold  forest  region  which  sets  in  at  about 
4,000  feet  elevation. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  forest  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Canada,  under  the  influence  of  the  climate: 

Percentage  of  forest  area  occupied  by: 

In  United  States.     In  Canada. 

Tropical   forest   i^%  0% 

Sub-tropical   forest    15     %  0% 

Forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone 75     %  10% 

Forest  of  the  moderately  cold  and  alpine  zone...       9V2%  90% 


The  United  States  contain  two  big  and  one  minor  forest  region, 
namely  the 

Atlantic  forest  region; 
North  Mexican  forest  region; 
Pacific   forest   region, 

23 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

The  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  forest  join  under  the  influence  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  winds  in  the  provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and  Al- 
berta.     There  are  no  prairies  proper  north  of  52  degrees  latitude. 

A.  The  Atlantic  forest. 

I.  Eastern  tropical  forest.  Mahogany  occurs  only  as  a  small 
tree,  Palms  and  other  typically  tropical  orders  (Sapotaceae,  Ebon- 
aceae,  Euphorbiaceae,  Verbenaceae)  compose  the  forest.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  Southern  Florida  exhibits  but  the  extreme 
northern  occurrence  of  the  tropical  forest. 

II.  Eastern  sub-tropical  forest.  It  shows  evergreen  Oaks,  Mag- 
nolias, Persea,  etc.,  besides  the  Pines,  the  soil  being  too  poor  for  the 
formation  of  a  large  wintergreen  broad-leafed  forest.  The  Avinter 
temperature  averages  53'  degrees  Faht.;  precipitations  are  heavy; 
relative  humidity  is  75  degrees.  Sabal  palmetto  is  a  characteristic 
weed.  Bald  Cypress  and  Cuban  Pine  are  characteristic  trees  of 
the  region.  Among  the  other  Pines,  the  Long  Leaf  Pine  is  the  most 
important,  associated  in  the  north  and  west  with  Pinus  clausa, 
echinata,  taeda,  serotina,  glabra.  Liquidambar,  Nyssa  and  Fraxinus 
platycarpa  occur  in  swamps  at  the  edge  of  which  Southern  '\^^ute 
Cedar  appears   frequently. 

III.  Eastern  winter  bald  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 
It  is  fringed  at  the  south,  north  and  east  by  a  broaa  belt  of  Pines, 
which  belt  connects  this  region  at  the  south  with  the  sub-tropical 
forest,  at  the  north  with  the  Fir  and  Spruce  forest  of  the  moder- 
ately cold  zone.  It  is  divided  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  half 
by  the  39th  degree  of  latitude.  Each  half  sIioavs  an  Atlantic,  a 
central  and  a  prairial  sub-region. 

a.  South  Central  Sub-region.  Traversed  by  the  Mississippi,  the 
sub-region  is  characterized  by  high  temperatures,  large  precipita- 
tions and  fine  soil,  which  allow  of  the  best  development  of  broad- 
leaved  woods  found  in  the  world.  Twenty-three  Oak  species,  eight 
Hickory  species,  two  Walnuts,  Buckeyes,  Chestnut,  Gums,  Cotton- 
woods,  Yellow  Poplar,  Sycamore,  Beech,  Maple,  Elm,  Red  Cedar,  etc., 
stand  in  a  dense  undergrowth  formed  by  Dogwood,  Kalmia,  Rho- 
dodendron, Hazel,  Hawthorn,  Buckthorn,  Witch  Hazel,  etc. 

In  this  sub-region  the  heavy  seeded  broad-leaved  trees  obtain 
the  maximum  of  size,  quality  and  number  of  species  at  altitudes 
running  up  to  3,000  feet.  Higher  up  the  number  of  species 
diminishes.  At  5,000  feet  only  Red  Oak,  Chestnut,  Beech,  Buckeye, 
Sugar  Maple  (resembling  north  central  subdivision)  are  found,  and 
24 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

at  4,000  feet  the  Spruces  and  Firs  (southernmost  sentinels  of  moder- 
ately cold  zone)   set  in. 

b.  South  Atlantic  Sub-region.  It  comprises  the  Eastern  foot- 
hills of  the  Alleghanies  (Piedmont  Plateau)  and  part  of  the  Coastal 
Plain.  Temperature  SYz  degrees  Faht.  less,  soil  poorer,  precipita- 
tions less  abundant  than  in  the  South  Central  sub-region,  hence 
much  Pine  (taeda,  mitis,  rigida,  virginiana).  Only  ten  Oak  species; 
White  Cedar  swamps;  broad-leaved  flora  otherwise  as  in  South 
Central,  but  of  rather  inferior  development. 

c.  South  Prairial  Sub-region.  Extending  from  the  92nd  to  the 
102nd  degree  of  longitude,  the  forest  appears  poorer  than  the  annual 
temperature  and  the  annual  rainfall  seem  to  indicate;  a  discrepancy 
between  cause  and  effect,  possibly  due  to  forest  fires.  West  of  the 
95th  degree  of  longitude.  Oak,  Ash  and  Walnut  occur  along  rivers, 
especially  on  Eastern  banks.  Oak  also  appears  scattered  through 
the  depressions. 

d.  North  Central  Sub-region.  Precipitations  coming  from 
South  as  well  as  from  North  very  abundant.  Average  winter 
temperature  30  degrees  Faht.  Quick  change  of  temperature.  The 
light-seeded,  broad-leaved  species  reach  maximum  in  this  section. 
White  Pine  and  Hemlock,  six  Maples,  five  Birches,  Elms,  Lindens, 
Ashes,  Butternut,  Red  and  White  Oak  compose  the  forest. 

e.  North  Atlantic  Sub-region.  Plenty  of  moisture,  the  moun- 
tains being  close  to  the  seashore,  but  not  so  much  as  in  Lake  states. 
Average  winter  temperature  34  degrees  Faht.  at  seashore.  Pinus 
rigida  and  echinata,  Beech,  Birch,  Chestnut,  Maples,  often  replaced 
by  Poplar  and  Willow.  Spruce  sets  in  at  altitude  exceeding  1,000 
feet,  accompanied  by  Hemlock,  White  Cedar,  Red  Cedar,  ^^Tiite 
Pine  and  Tamarack. 

f.  North  Prairial  Sub-region.  Dry  summers,  blizzardy  winters 
and  more  sandy  soil.  No  Hemlock,  Red  Pine  and  Jack  Pine 
intruding  from  North.  Scrub  Oak  openings.  On  best  soil  still  good 
development  of  Linden,  Maple,  Elm  and  Birch.  White  Pine  of 
poorer  quality  than  in   sub-region  "  d." 

^    IV.  Eastern  Evergreen  Forest  of  the  moderately  cold  zone. 
The  majority  of  this  zone  lies  in  Canada,  in  the  northern  Lake 
states   and   in  Maine.      It   occurs   in  North  Carolina  at  5,000   feet 
elevation;  in  the  Adirondacks  at  2,000  feet;  in  Maine  at  sea  level. 

The  region  occupies  a  big  belt  stretched  across  the  continent,  so 
that  the  western  and  eastern  flora  join  hands  in  it.     A  typical  tree 
of  this  region,   the   White   Spruce,   often  forms   large   pure   forests. 
25 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Other  species  of  the  zone  are  Red  Spruce,  Black  Spruce,  Balsam-fir, 
Cotton- woods,  Canoe  Birch,  Hemlock,  White  Cedar  and  Tamarack, 
tlie  latter  here  obtaining  its  optimum. 

B.  The   Nortli   Mexican   forest. 

The  North  Mexican  flora  intrudes,  coming  from  Mexico,  the 
states  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  It  is  small  in  area,  but  inter- 
esting botanically.  Forest  not  possible  save  at  altitudes  exceeding 
5,500  feet.      Forest  proper — dense  forest — but  at  8  000  feet. 

I.  North  Mexican  sub-tropical  forest. 

Characterized  by  Cactus,  Yucca,  Agave  and  Mosquite  (Prosopis). 
Evergreen  Oaks  in  moist  valleys.  Madrona  (Arbutus),  a  beautiful 
tree,  on  sunny  slopes  often  mixed  with  Manzanita  (Acrostaphyios 
pungens). 

II.  North  Mexican  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 

This  zone,  very  narrow,  should  contain  winter-bald  broad-leaved 
species.  The  dryness  of  the  soil  and  of  the  air,  however,  does  not 
allow  of  their  occurrence  save  on  moist  ground  along  rivers.  West- 
ern Walnut,  Mexican  Ash,  Poplars  and  Willows.  The  Pines  are  the 
leading  species  of  the  zone,  forming  huge  forests  at  altitudes  ex- 
ceeding 6,000  feet  elevation.  Some  of  these  Pines  are  northern 
sentinels  from  Mexico,  others  outposts  from  the  States.  Im- 
portant is  Pinus  Chihuahuana,  in  Mexico  largely  used  for  timber,  up 
to  80  feet  high,  three  feet  in  diameter,  three  needles.  Pinus 
Arizonica,  a  five-needled  Pine,  occurs  at  6,000  feet  elevation.  Pinus 
reflexa,  locally  known  as  White  Pine,  occupies  moist  dells  at  8,000 
feet  elevation.  Nut  pines  at  lesser  elevations  as  low  brush,  notably 
Pinus  edulis,  monophylla,  osteosperma. 

C.  The   Pacific   forest. 

Typical  difl'erencc  from  Atlantic  forest  lies  in  the  relative  lack, 
not  in  species  but  in  area,  of  broad-leaved  woods.  Tropical  forest 
is  absent,  possibly  due  to  lack  of  moisture  at  low  elevations  in 
Southern  California. 

I.  Pacific  sub-tropical  forest. 

Occupying  Southern  California.  This  zone  is  devoid  of  deaee 
forests,  the  northern  edge  excepted.  Evergreen  Oaks,  or  rather 
Winter  Green  Oaks  (Pasania  densiflora  is  leafless  during  dry  sum- 
mer) dot  the  ground  in  park-like  groves.  California  Laurel  (Um- 
bellularia  calif ornica)  is  a  characteristic  tree  of  this  region,  grow- 
ing up  to  100  feet  high.  Impenetrable  bush  thickets  cover  hot 
aspects,  formed  by  Leguminosae,  Labiatae,  Compositae,  Rosaceae, 
etc.      The  rare  and  beautiful  Montery  Cypress  along  the  seashore. 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Sequoia  sempervirens  in  the  Coast  Range  is  the  biggest  tree  of  the 
zone,  found  at  its  edge.  Pinus  insignis,  known  as  Montery  Pine, 
is  valuable  on  sand  dunes. 

Pinus  tuberculata  (attenuata)  occurs  most  frequently  in  even- 
aged  woods.  Pinus  sabiniana.  Nut  or  Digger  Pine,  valuable  for  the 
Indians,  of  Olive-like  appearance,  is  mixed  in  the  Oak  parks  and  in 
the  Chaparal  thickets.  Another  Nut  Pine  is  Pinus  parryana,  grow- 
ing 30  feet  high.  Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa  on  St.  Bernardino  range. 
Eucalyptus  and  Accacia  from  Australia,  Oranges  and  Figs  from 
the  Orient,  were   successfully  introduced. 

II.  Pacific  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 

This  zone  covers  the  major  part  of  the  forests  of  Oregon, 
Washington  and  Northern  California.  It  is  characterized  by  an 
even  annual  temperature  and  high  precipitations.  The  winter  bald 
Oaks  are  represented  in  Oregon  by  Quercus  garryana  (White  Oak), 
in  California  by  Quercus  kellogii  (Black  Oak).  Fraxinus  Oregona, 
Acer  macrophylluni,  Populus  trichocarpa  (the  biggest  Cottonwood 
of  the  world)  occupy  the  bottom  land  along  the  rivers;  further 
Sorbus,  Amelanchier,  Crataegus,  Prunus,  Salix,  Aesculus,  Alnus, 
Acer,  Negundo,  Platanvis,  Betula.  All  of  these  latter  species  unim- 
portant commercially. 

In  strict  contrast  with  the  Atlantic  forest  of  the  same  zone, 
the  conifers  rule  in  importance,  foremost  among  them  the  Douglas 
Fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  which  stands  temperatures  of  15 
degrees  Faht.  easily.  Best  development  on  west  slope  of  Coast 
Range.  In  the  Rockies,  it  forms  short  boles,  owing  to  shorter 
growing  season  and  lack  of  atmospheric  moisture.  In  Colorado, 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  occurs  a  gray  variety.  In  the  Sierras  it 
appears  as  a  dependent  species.  On  the  Eraser  river,  a  fourth  race 
of  Douglas  Fir  is  distinguished. 

Pinus  ponderosa  Cijellow  Pine,  Bull  Pine).  Height  and  timber 
quality  depend  on  proximity  to  Pacific  Ocean.  Optimum  in  Sierra 
Nevada,  where  trees  300  feet  high  are  frequently  found.  Very 
heavy  sap-wood.  Name  ponderosa  undeserved.  No  tree  species 
of  the  United  States  occupies  a  larger  territory  or  shows  greater 
adaptability. 

Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  (Port  Orford  Cedar)  occupies  a 
small  territory  close  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  does  not  ascend  the 
mountains  to  altitudes  over  1,500  feet.  Heavy  shade  bearer, 
splendid  reproduction. 

Thuja  plicata  (Red  Cedar  of  the  West)  up  to  170  feet  high. 
Rare  in  California.  Best  development  in  Oregon  and  Washington 
27 


A  M  E  R I C  A  X    SYLVICULTURE 

and  Nortliern  Idaho,  where  it  occupies  the  moister  coves.  Boles 
very  tapering;   shade  bearing. 

Libocedrus  decurrens  (White  Cedar,  Bastard  Cedar)  on  west 
slope  of  the  Sierras  at  medium  elevations,  where  the  tree  is  mixed 
with  Abies  concolor,  Yellow  and  Sugar  Pine.  Regeneration  easy, 
often  in  places  previously  occupied  by  the  Pines. 

Pinus  lambertiana  (Sugar  Pine),  with  five  needles  in  a  sheath, 
specific  gravity  less  than  that  of  Eastern  White  Pine  (Pinus 
strobus).  The  biggest  Pine  of  the  world.  Very  large  cones. 
Optimum  in  Sierras  at  5,000  feet  elevation;  occurs  often  with 
Sequoia,  Libocedrus,  Abies  concolor.  Yellow  Pine,  Pinus  jeflfreyi. 
The  latter,  a  very  close  relative  of  ponderosa  and  distinguished 
from  it  by  bluish  shoots  and  needles  bent  towards  the  shoots, 
occupies  the  lower  Sugar  Pine  belt.  It  prefers  moist  ground  and 
readies  but  one-half  the  size  of  ponderosa. 

Mayr  groups  the  above  trees  as  follows,  according  to  their 
demands   on   moisture: 

Demands  on  soil  moisture: 

1.  Libocedrus  decurrens, 

2.  Pinus  jeffreyi, 

3.  Abies  concolor, 

4.  Pinus  lambertiana, 

5.  Pinus  ponderosa. 
Demands   on   air   moisture: 

1.  Abies   concolor, 

2.  Pinus  lambertiana, 

3.  Pinus  jeffreyi, 

4.  Libocedrus  decurrens, 

5.  Pinus  ponderosa. 

Abies  grandis  (White  Fir  of  Northern  Pacific  Coast).  The  only 
fir  on  Vancouver  Island.  Optimum  at  coast  in  Oregon  where  it 
grows  up  to  300  feet  high,  standing  alongsiae  gigantic  Oottonwoods; 
extends  eastward  across  the  Northern  Rockies,  and  is  the  first 
Pacific  fir  met  by  the  traveller  going  west  on  the  Northern  Pacific. 
Requires  moist  soil. 

Abies  concolor  (White  Fir  of  Colorado  and  of  the  Sierras). 
Running  south  to  the  San  Bernardino  mountains,  where  it  occupies 
elevations  of  up  to  10,000  feet.  Traversing  Nevada,  it  occurs  in 
Colorado  (gardener's  variety  glauca).  It  accompanies  Sugar  Pine 
and  Bigtree.  After  Muir,  always  mixed  with  Abies  magnifica, 
occurring  at  altitudes  ranging  between  5,000  feet  and  8,000  feet. 

Abies  bracteata  (Santa  Lucia  fir  of  high  mountains)  occurs  in 
Southern  California  in  moist  cool  dells. 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

Tsuga  heteroijhylla  (Black  Hemlock  of  low  elevations).  A  fine 
tree,  the  progeny  of  which  forms  a  dense  undergrowth  underneath 
Douglas  fir.  Heavy  shade  bearer,  requiring  plenty  of  moisture, 
occurring  in  Alaska,  Coast  Range  and  Cascades. 

Picea  sitchensis  (Tideland  Spruce).  Along  coast  on  moist  soil 
in  Washington  and  Oregon,  on  dryer  soil  in  Alaska,  shade  bearing 
and  branchy.      Stinging  needles.      Up  to  200  feet  high. 

Sequoia  washingtoniana  (Bigtree).  Occurring  in  the  Sierras 
in  scattered  groups  at  elevations  ranging  from  4.000  to  7,000  feet. 
Enormous  seeding  capacity  and  sprouting  capacity.  Average 
diameter  20  feet,  height  275  feet,  age  up  to  4,000  years. 

III.  Pacific  forest  of  moderately  cold  zone. 

This  zone  is  economically  of  little  importance,  although  it  is 
the  forest  zone  proper,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  agriculture 
within  this  zone.  It  is  "The  Canadian  Forest  Zone."  It  lies  in 
the  Sierras  at  8,000  feet,  in  the  Cascades  at  4,000  feet,  and  in 
Alaska  at  seashore.  The  forests  of  the  Northern  Rocky  mountains 
belong  to  it  preferably. 

Pinus  murrayana  (Lodgepole  Pine).  Shade  bearing,  in  close 
stands,  very  branchy,  very  sappy,  retaining  cones,  easily  destroyed 
by  fire,  closely  related  to  the  Jack  Pine  of  the  east.  Frequent  on 
old  burns,  typical  for  Yellowstone  Park,  going  south  to  Arizona. 

Larix  occ^dentalis  (Western  Tamarack).  Splendid  lumber  tree, 
often  in  pure  forests,  optimum  in  Idaho,  natural  regeneration  easy, 
rapid  height  growth,  little  sap  wood,  timber  equal  to  that  of  Long 
Leaf  Pine. 

Pinus  flexilis  (Limber  White  Pine).  More  branchy  and  much 
shorter  than  eastern  White  Pine;  forms  open  forests  on  south 
slopes  of  Sierras  and  in  Nevada  at  7,000  feet  elevation;  it  extends 
from  Montana  southward  to  Colorado. 

Pinus  monticola  (Western  White  Pine).  In  Cascades,  British 
Columbia,  Idaho,  Montana,  in  the  latter  state  more  on  slopes  drain- 
ing westward. 

Abies  nobilis,  amabilis,  magnifica,  the  Red  Firs  of  the  west. 
Magnifica  known  in  California  as  Larch.  The  two  first  named  often 
associated  with  Abies  grandis  and  more  frequent  In  Washington  and 
Oregon  than  in  California.  Amabilis  extends  into  Alaska.  Red 
Firs  are  lacking  in  the  Rockies.      Needles  are  dark. 

Picea  engelmanni  (White  Spruce).  At  home  in  middle  and 
southern  Rockies,  on  northern  slopes  at  altitudes  averaging  10,000 
feet. 

Picea  parryana  (Colorado  Blue  Spruce).  Needles  very  pointed 
and  stinging,  of  a  bluish  tint.      Occupies  moist  ground. 


A  ISI  E  R  I  C  A  X     SYLVICULTURE 

IV.  Pacific  forest  of  the  Alpine  region. 

Typical   trees  are: 

Pinus  albicaulis  (Dwarf  White  Pine),  occurrin;?  in  the  Cascades 
and  the  Northern  Rockies. 

Pinus  balfouriana  and  aristata  (Fox-Tail  Pine),  White  Pines 
found  in  California  at  8,000  feet  to  12,000  feet  elevation:  twigs  thin, 
retaining  needles  for  many  years. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Balsam).  At  edge  of  tree  growth  but  a 
shrub.  In  Colorado  at  lower,  warmer  situations  a  valuable  tree. 
Occurs  in  all  states  of  the  west. 

Larix  lyallii  (Larch  of  British  Columbia).  Occurs  here  and 
there  in  Washington,  Idaho  and  Montana,  at  very  high  altitudes. 

Tsuga  niertensiana  (Hemlock).  A  storm-battered  Hemlock,  at 
high  altitudes  in  Sierras,  Cascades,  Montana.  A  branchy  tree  up 
to  100  feet  high,  inaccessible  and  hence  of  no  value. 


Paragraph  V.     General  definitions  and  explan- 
ations. 

A.  By  the  term  "  wood  "  is  understood  an  aggregate  of 

trees  of  such  uniform  character  that  it  can  be  subjected  to  the 
same  manner  of  treatment.  In  the  American  vii^in  forests, 
"  woods  "  are  rare.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  term  "  w^oods  "  as  well 
as  the  term  "forests"  has  no  definite  meaning  in  America.  A 
forester  should  keep  in  mind,  however,  that  a  plantation  or  a 
natural  regeneration,  whatever  its  age  and  its  condition,  must  be 
classed   under   the   heading   "  forests." 

A  "  group  "  of  trees  consists  of  even-aged  specimens  of  the  same 
species  and  is  larger  than  a  bunch,  clump,  or  cluster.  No  recog- 
nized definitions  of  the  term  "group"  and  "clump"  are  at  hand, 
unfortunately,  based  on  the  space  or  the  acreage  covered  by  them 
as  units.  Groups,  as  understood  in  the  following  pages,  are  dis- 
tinct aggregates  of  trees  covering  ^\  to  4  acres. 

Seed  forests,  or  high  forests,  are  forests  composed  of  specimens 
originating  from  tree  seeds. 

Sprout  forests,  or  coppice  woods,  are  forests  composed  of  speci- 
mens originating  from  sprouts,  stoolshoots,  rootsuckers,  layers, 
cuttings,  and  not  from  the  seeds  of  the  trees. 

Composite  forests  are  forests  recruited  from  tree  seeds  as  well 
as  from  stumpsprouts.  The  composite  forest  is  a  mixture  or  a 
combination  of  the  seed  forest  and  of  the  sprout  forest. 

30 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

B.  Pure   forests,   pure   ivoods,   pure   groups   or  bunclies 

are  such  as  contain  one  timber  species  only,  5  per  cent,  admixture 
being  permissible.  Species  able  to  form,  pure  forests  are  termed 
gregarious  or  ruling  species,  sub-divided  into  distinctly  ruling 
species,  which  are  usually  found  in  pure  stands,  and  conditionally 
ruling  species,  which  are  occasionally  found  in  pure  stands. 

I.  After  Drude,  the  participation  of  a  species  as  a  mess-mate  at 
the  forest  table  is  expressed  by  the  following  terminology: 

a.  Social  species,  denoting  the  main  character,  the  striking 
feature  (in  nimibers  and  volume)  of  the  forest;  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  forest; 

b.  Gregarious  species,  occurring  in  clumps  and  groups,  island 
like; 

c.  Copious  species,  interspersed  with  others,  the  degree  of  fre- 
quency being  interpreted  by  exponents,  e.  g.,  copious^,  copious^ 
copious^ ; 

d.  Sparse  species,  occurring  isolated  and  in  single  specimens; 

e.  Solitary  species,  very  isolated  and  very  rare. 

II.  The  ratio  of  the  participation  might  be  expressed  in  per 
cent.,  as  follows: 

Social,  forming  60%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Gregarious,  forming  40%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Copious,  forming  20%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Sparse,  forming  1%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Solitary,  forming  less  than  1%  of  growing  stock. 
Intermediate  stages  might  be  indicated  by  a  combination  of  the 
given  designations,  e.  g.,  "  social-gregarious." 

III.  The  configuration  of  the  ground  and  the  rapidity  of  its 
change  influence  vitally  the  possibilities  of  a  species  as  a  component 
of  the  forest. 

IV.  Species  which  are  not*" ruling,"  or  which  are  locally  not 
"  ruling,"  are  called  "  dependent  "  species. 

A  species  might  be  ruling  in  North  Carolina,  while  it  is  depend- 
ent in  South  Carolina.  The  distribution  of  the  species  is  limited 
by  its  demands  on  soil  and  climate.  Far  away  from  its  center  of 
distribution,  a  species  is  likely  to  be  dependent. 

V.  The  ruling  species  in  the  south  are:  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Bald 
Cypress,  Loblolly  Pine,  Short  Leaf  Pine,  Sweet  Gum,  Post  Oak, 
Cottonwoods,  Chestnut. 

The  ruling  species  in  the  west  are:    Lodgepole  Pine,  Pinus  ponde- 

31 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

rosa,  Douglas  Fir,  White  Fir   (Abies  grandis),  Engelmanii's  Spruce, 
Western  White  Pine,  Port  Orford  Cedar,  Redwood,  Sitka  Spruce. 

VI.  The  meek  species  are  those  that  conquer  the  globe.  With 
the  inroads  of  civilization  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  especially 
on  the  water  capacity  of  the  soil,  these  meek  species  obtain  addi- 
tional chances  to  supersede  the  exacting  species. 

C.  Weapons  of  the  species  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence are: 

I.  Shade-bearing  qualities. 

IL  Modesty  as  regards  the  fertility^  the  depth,  and  the  aeration 
of  the  soil,  further  as  regards  the  moisture  and  the  heat  during  the 
period  of  vegetation. 

III.  Power  of  resistance  to  storm,  sleet,  snow,  late  and  early 
frosts,  droughts,  fire,  etc. 

IV.  Immunity  from  forest  insects  and  forest  fungi. 

V.  Longevity.  Oak  lives  longer  than  Beech;  Sequoia  longest 
of  all. 

VI.  Reproductive  power,  especially  reproductive  power  from 
stumps  or  roots,  frequency  and  richness  of  seed  years. 

VII.  Portability  and  sensitiveness  of  seeds;  number  of  enemies 
of  seeds;   germinating  percentage  of  seeds. 

VIII.  Rapidity  of  heiglit  growth  in  early  youth. 

D.  Density  of  stand.  Every  ruling  species  shows  a  particu- 
lar density  of  cover  and  a  particular  ramification  during  every 
stage  of  its  life,  when  grown  in  pure  forests. 

I.  Density  of  leaf  cover  overhead. 

a.  The  form  of  the  crown  of  the  individual  depends  on  side- 
shade,  topshade,  neighborly  friction  and  quality  of  soil. 

b.  Natural  regeneration  causes  a  greater  density  of  cover  than 
artificial  regeneration,  certainly  during  the  thicket  and  pole  stage. 
Other  influencing  factors  are:  quality  of  the  soil,  age  of  the  forest, 
inroads  by  snow  break,  wind  fall,  fire,  deer,  fungi,  insects. 

c.  A  dense  canopy  overhead  produces  clear-boled  timber  and 
allows  of  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  on  the  ground.  The  method  of 
regeneration  distinctly  influences  the  value  of  the  timber  to  be 
formed. 

II.  Number  of  trees  per  acre. 

Under  normal  conditions  an  acre  of  pure  forest  contains  the 
more  specimens  of  equal  height  or  diameter,  the  better  the  quality 
of  the  soil  and  the  better  the  climate;  and  the  more  specimens  of 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 


the  same  age,  the  poorer  these  factors   are 
Pine  Forests: 

Xuiiiber  of  trees  per  acre. 

Soil.  Boles  75'  long.  Diameter  12". 

I  qmility...  320  240 

II  quality...  240  215 

III  quality...  190  190 


For  e.xample — Yellow 


Age  60  y IS. 
380 
4G0 
540 


During  the  pole  stage  and  tree  stage,  shade  bearers  exhibit  per 
acre  of  ground  about  507o  more  trees  than  light  demanders. 

The  following  curve  illustrates  the  interdependence  between  age 
and  number  of  trees  'ler  acre: 


of 


trees 


per 


10,000 

5,000 

2,500 

1,000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

.500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 


0    10   20   30   40   50   60 


When   the   forest   is 

rO   80   90   100    120   130   140   1.50    160    170   180 
years  old. 


III.  Growing  space  of  a  tree. 

In  their  earliest  youth  nil  species  stand  or  even  desire  a  dense 
cover  overhead.  When  the  food  supply  stored  in  the  seed  shell  is 
consumed,  however,  the  seedling  requires  light  to  digest  its  food. 
With  increasing  age,  the  tree  boles  getting  longer,  the  crowns  rub 
and  beat  one  another  intensely,  oscillating  in  the  wind.  As  a  con- 
sequence each  crown  is  surrounded  with  an  air  space,  the  relative 
width  of  which  depends  largely  on  the  length  and  the  flexibility  of 
the  bole.  It  might  be  stated  that  the  growing  space  of  a  tree  is  a 
function  of  the  square  of  the  gradually  lengthening  bole. 

Trees  differ  in  the  ease  with  which  warring  neighbors  lose  their 
buds  and  shoots.  Oak,  for  example,  loses  its  May  shoots  easily, 
whilst  Beech,  struggling  with  Oak,  loses  but  a  few  leaves  along  its 

33 


A  ]\I  E  R  I  C  A  N    S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

flexile  swaying  twigs.  In  heavy  storms  Yellow  Pine  often  loses 
wliol^  branches.  White  Pine,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  lose  its 
shoots  (topshoots)  easily,  unless  they  are  whipped  in  the  wind 
by  the  stiff  branches  of  Black  Locust,  Beech,  ]\[aple.  Aspen,  etc., 
forming  a  superstructure  above  it.  The  top  shoots  of  the  taller 
individuals  are  immune  from  harm.  Thus  a  tree,  once  in  the  lead 
of  its  competitors,  has  a  good  chance  to  retain  the  lead  over  them. 

IV.  Grades  of  density  of  cover  are:  Pressed  cover,  Close  cover, 
Light  cover  and  Open  cover.  Xo  strict  definition  of  these  terms  can 
be  given.  Obviously  the  number  of  stems  under  pressed  conditions 
is  very  large,  and  under  open  conditions  very  small. 

Indications  of  a  normal  cover  are: 

a.  Relation  between  length  of  crown  and  length  of  bole. 

b.  Xormal  diameter  growth  and  height  growth. 

c.  Proper  participation  of  the  various  diameter  classes  in  the 
volume  of  wood  at  hand.  The  normal  participation  in  a  pure,  even- 
aged  wood  is  for  the 

1st.  Diameter  class,  40%  of  total  volume. 
2nd.  Diameter  class,  24%  of  total  volume. 
3rd.  Diameter  class,  17%  of  total  volume. 
4th.  Diameter  class,  12%  of  total  volume. 
5th.  Diameter  class,  7%  of  total  volume. 

If  cover  overhead  is  too  dense,  the  first  diameter  class  shows 
over  40%  of  volume  and  vice  versa. 

V.  In  nature,  the  same  causes  necessarily  havo  the  same  result. 
The  causes  of  timber  production  are  soil  and  atmospheric  food  "  fall- 
ing "  onto  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  sunshine,  moisture  and  air. 
Hence,  whatever  the  species  are,  it  seems  as  if  the  acre  of  ground, 
fully  stocked,  must  produce  on  the  annual  average  the  same  weight 
of  timber,  though  not  the  same  volume  of  timber.  Thus,  ceteris 
paribus,  species  of  light  specific  gravity  are  the  best  volume  pro- 
ducers. Since,  however,  shade-bearing  species  are  better  digestors 
of  atmospheric  and  terrestrial  food,  the  largest  growth  per  acre 
per  annum  is  obtained  from  shade  bearers  and  "  intermediates  "  of 
light  weight   (Hemlock,  Spruce,  Fir,  Douglas  Fir,  White  Pine,  etc.). 

In  the  virgin  forest  the  annual  production  of  wood  fibre  is 
exactly  offset  by  the  annual  death  and  decay  of  wood  fibre.  The 
virgin  forest  is  a  forest  seemingly  in  economic  stagnation. 

VI.  The  sectional  area  of  a  tree  usually  measured  chest  high 
(41/0  feet  above  ground),  inclusive  of  bark,  is  the  area  of  the  circle 
corresponding  with  the  diameter  measured  chest  high. 

34 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

The  sectional  area  of  an  acre  of  forest  is  tlio  sum  total  of  the 
sectional  areas  of  the  trees  standing  thereon.  It  rarely  exceeds  one- 
half  per  cent,  of  the  acreage  of  the  ground,  or  218  square  feet  per 
acre.  On  the  Pacific  Coast,  more  than  twice  this  figure  is  reached 
by  the  Douglas  Fir. 

E.  Rotation. 

By  rotation  is  understood  the  number  of  years  Avhich  a  seedling 
requires  to  reach  maturity.  For  a  second  growth  in  America, 
rotations  will  vary  in  length  from  60  years  to  160  years,  according 
to  the  species  and  local  conditions.  During  a  rotation  a  wood  lot 
may  pass  through  the  cleaning  stages,  thinning  stages,  the  stage 
of  preparatory  cutting,  the  seed-cutting  stage  and  the  stage  of  final 
removal.  Out  of  thousands  of  specimens  borne,  but  a  few  dozen 
persist  to  the  end  of  'the  rotation. 

F.  Size  classes  and  age  classes. 

I.  Pinchot  adopts  the  following  seven  age  classes  or  size  classes 
of  trees  in  his  "Primer:  " 

a.  Seedlings,  up  to  3  feet  high. 

b.  Small  saplings,  from  3  to  10  feet  high. 

c.  Large  saplings,  10  feet  high  to  4  inches  diameter. 

d.  Small  poles,  from  4  inches  to  8  inches  diameter. 

e.  Large  poles,  from  8  inches  to  12  inches  diameter. 

f.  Standards,  from  12  inches  to  24  inches  diameter. 

g.  Veterans,  over  24  inches  diameter. 

IL  During  the  sapling  stage,  the  specimens  form  a  thicket; 
during  the  pole  stage,  they  form  a  polewood;  and  during  the 
standard  and  veteran  stage,  a  tree  forest. 

III.  During  the  thinning  stage  (pole  stages)  of  trees  in  an  even- 
aged  wood,  the  following  classes  of  mess-mates  might  be  distin- 
guished : 

a.  After  Schlich,  "  Dominant,"  "  Dominated,"  "  Suppressed,  yet 
alive,"  and  "Dead." 

b.  After  Pinchot,  "  Dominant,"  "  Retarded,"  and  "  Overtopped." 

c.  The  usual  classification,  adopted  by  German  foresters  after 
Krafft  is: 

1.  Predominating  trees,  having  crown  strikingly  well  developed. 

2.  Dominating  trees.  With  well-developed  crowns,  forming  the 
main  cover  overhead. 

3.  Condominating  trees,  with  crowns  of  a  fairly  normal  form, 
but  of  somewhat  poor  vigor,  carrying,  however,  their  crowns  within 
the  level  of  the  main  canopy. 

35 


A  :\1  E  R  I  C  A  X     8  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

4.  Dominated  trees  with  ciowns  more  or  less  crippled  or  pressed 
from  tlie  sides,  subdivided  into  two  sub-classes,  viz.: 

a.  ;Most  of  crown  free  from  cover  overhead. 

b.  Most  of  crown  underneath  cover  overhead. 

5.  Trees  absolutely  suppressed,  standing  entirely  under  the  cover 
of  others. 

G.  Even-aged   woods: 

Woods,  the  components  of  which  ditl'er  in  age  by  less  than  25 
years,  are  called  "  even-aged  woods."  The  struggle  for  existence 
between  even-aged  comrades  can  be  alleviated  readily  by  the  for- 
ester's interference. 

In   America,   even-aged   woods   may   be   formed: 

I.  By   Long  Leaf   and   by   Cuban   Pine. 

n.  By  .Jack  Pine  and  Lbdgepole  Pine. 

IIL  By  Bald   Cypress. 

IV.  By  Douglas   Fir. 

V.  By  Pinus  echinata,  taeda,  strobus,  ponderosa,  virginiana  on 
abandoned    fields. 

H.  Distribution   of  species. 

The  vertical  distribution  of  the  species  depen-'s  on  the  latitude 
and  the  proximity  of  the  ocean,  j)r  better  on  sea  winds.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  Biltmore,  the*  following  altitudes  may  be  given: 

Spruce  and  Fir — 5,500  feet. 

Beech— 3,000  to  6,000  feet. 

Hemlock— 3,000  to  3,800  feet. 

Chestnut— 2,000  to  5,000  feet. 

Chestnut  Oak— 2,000  to  4,000  feet. 

Pignut   Hickory— 3,000  feet. 

Bitternut  Hickory— 3,800  feet. 

Black  Cherry— 3,500  to  5,000  feet. 

Pinus  virginiana— 2,000  to  2,500  feet. 

Pinus   strobus— 2,000  to   3,500   feet. 

Yellow  Poplar— 2,000  to  4,000  feet. 

Buckeye— 4,000  to  6,000  feet. 

Red  Oak— 2,000  to  5,500  feet. 

White  Oak— 2,000  to  5,000  feet. 

S])anish  Oak— 2,000  to  3,800  feet. 

Post  Oak— 2,000  to  3,000  feet. 

Black  Oak— 2,000  to  3,600  feet. 

Echinata— 2,000  to  2,600  feet. 

Rigida— 2,000  to  3,.500  feet. 

Pungens — 4,500  feet. 

36 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

Locust— 2,000  to  5,500  feet. 

Black  Gum— 2,000  to  4,000  feet. 

Every  species,  thrives  best  in  certain  centers,  which  are  few  in 
the  case  of  the  exacting  and  numerous  in  the  case  of  modest 
species  like  Yellow  Pine,  both  east  and  west. 

Aside  from  vertical  and  horizontal  elevation,  the  influence  on 
■distribution  exercised  by  storm,  snow  and  sleet  is  very  marked. 


Paragraph  VI.     Li^ht     demanders     and     shade 
bearers. 

A.  A  plant  is  termed  the  more  shade  bearing  or  tolerant 

of  shade,  the  less  light  it  requires  for  the  functions  of  assimilation, 
breathing,  perspiration,  flowering  and  fruiting.  Only  parasites  live 
-without  light,  and  hence  without  chlorophyl. 

B.  The  follcnring  characteristics,  in  their  aggregate  and 
•not  singly,  may  lead  the  observer  to  classify  a  tree  as  a  shade 
'bearer : 

I.  Dense  leaf  canopy. 

II.  Leaves  thin,  dark,  flat,  numerovis,  not  glossy,  not  downy, 
not  bunched  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  with  blades  spread  hori- 
zontally, withering  quickly  after  separation  from  the  branch. 

III.  Thin  bark. 

IV.  Thick   sapwood. 

V.  Branches  persistent,  spread  flat  or  pointing  downward,  com- 
paratively thin  and  interlacing.      Crowns  long. 

VI.  Little  live  soil  cover,  and  a  heavy  layer  of  dead  humus 
underneath  leaf  canopy. 

VII.  Dense  stand  of  trees. 

C.  Factors    influencing    the    relative    demand    for    light 

within  one  and  the  same  species  are: 

I.  Latitude  and  hence  intensity  of  insolation. 

II.  Site,  which  may  be  in  the  heart  of  a  continent,  or  else  at 
the  edge  of  an  ocean. 

III.  Exposure. 

IV.  Fertility  of  soil,  and  hence  digestive  power. 

V.  Age  of  plants. 

VI.  Distance  between  the  crown  levels  of  the  shaded  and  of 
the  shading  trees. 

Instances  for  I  and  III: 

37 


A  M  E  K  I  C  AN     S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  K  E 

White   Pine    is,    in    the    Soutii,    almost    shade    bearing;    in    the 
North,  it  is  almost  light  demanding. 

Yellow  Poplar  stands  heavy  shading  overhead  on  fertile  soil. 

D.  The  woody   species,   in   their  relative  order  of  resistance 
against  heavy  shading,  might  be  arranged  as  follows: 

I.  Relative  order  for  the  Southern  Appalachians: 

Witch  Hazel. 

Dogwood. 

Fir. 

Hemlock. 

Hard  Maple. 

Chinquapin. 

Black  Gum. 

Spruce. 

Linden. 

Soft  Maple. 

White  Pine. 

Pinus  virginiana. 

Chestnut. 

Red  Oak. 

^Vhite  Oak. 

Chestnut  Oak. 

Ash. 

Spanish  Oak. 

Black  Oak. 

Finger  Oak. 

Post  Oak. 

Pinus  rigida. 

Black  Locust. 

Poplar. 

Hickory. 

Pinus  echinata. 

Sassafras. 

Unfortunately,   at    Biltmore,   shade   bearers   are   usually   weeds 
interfering  with  the  valuable  species. 

II.  Pinchot  gives   the  following   schedule  for  the  Adirondacks: 

Hard  Maple. 

Beech. 

Hemlock. 

Spruce. 

Balsam. 

38 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

Soft  Maple. 

Birch. 

White  Pine    (intermediate). 

Black  Cherry. 

Black  and  White  Ash. 

Bird  Cherry. 

Cottonwood. 

Tamarack. 
The  trees  above  Wliite  Pine,  Pinchot  calls  "  tolerant  "  and  those 
below  White  Pine,  "  intolerant  of  shade."     Species  neither  tolerant 
nor  intolerant   are   "  intermediates." 

III.  The  leading  species  of  the  United  States,  classed  according 
to  light  or  siiade-demanding  qualities  are: 

a.  Eastern  Conifers: 

Long  Leaf  Pine — distinctly  intolerant  of  shade. 
/  /Echinata — light  demander. 
y'  Taeda — intermediate. 
7  Virginia — intermediate. 

Rigida — not   so   tolerant   as    Virginiana. 
;  <:Bald    Cypress — light    demander. 
^T^Chamaecyparis    spheroidea — shade    bearer. 
J'Spruce — fair    shade   bearer. 
'   Balsam — intense  shade  bearer, 
i-  Hemlock — intense   shade   bearer. 
j  ^  Tamarack^ — light  demander. 
J5  Arbor  vitae — shade   bearer. 
■  White  Pine — intermediate. 

Jack   Pine — liglit  demanding   towards  intermediate. 
j  I  Norway  Pine — light  demander. 

b.  Eastern  hardwoods: 

/        Beech — shade  bearer. 

Hard  Maple — shade  bearer. 
Silver   Maple — shade   bearer. 
Red  Maple — shade  bearer. 
Black   Gum — shade  bearer. 
/  "    Sourwood — light  demander. 
/  '-      Locust — light  demander. 
/  •^^  Yellow  Poplar — light  demander. 
Chestnut — intermediate. 
Oaks— light  demanders   (White  and  Red  Oak  stand  shade 

when  yoving). 
Elm — shade  bearer. 

39 


•/ 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Riicli — light    deniander    or    intt>rniediate. 

Black   Walnut — intermediate. 

Linden — shade    bearer. 
rx   Umbrella  tree — less  light  demanding  than  Yellow  P()[)lar. 
/   "^   Cucumber — less  light  demanding  than  Yellow  Poplar. 

Sycamore — medium   shade  bearer. 

Willows  and  Cottonwoods — light  demanders. 

Li(|uidanibar — light  deniander. 

Hickories — light  demanders. 
Western  Conifers: 

Douglas    Fir — intermediate. 

Ponderosa — light   deniander. 

Nut    Pines — intense    light    deniander. 

Lodgejiole  Pine — intermediate. 

Sugar  Pine — intense   light  deniander. 

Lawson  Cypress — intense  shade  bearer. 

Tide-land   Spruce — shade    bearer. 

Redwood — shade   beafer. 

Western   Hemlock — intense   shade   bearer. 

Western  Firs — intense  shade  bearers. 

Larch — intense  light  demander. 

Englemann's    Spruce — shade    bearer. 

Colorado  Blue  Spruce — shade  bearer. 


Paragraph  VII.     Pure  versus  mixed  woods. 

A.   Conditions  inviting  pure  ^voods  and  mixed  woods. 

Conifers  are  more  apt  to  grow  in  pure  forests,  owing  to  tlieir 
greater  modesty.  Abroad,  up  to  a  very  recent  time,  the  desire  of 
the  forester  was  to  raise  mixed  woods,  but  quite  recently  the 
■"  Danish  propaganda  "  has  turned  tlio  minds  of  some  foresters  back 
to  pure  woods. 

Severe  climatic  conditions  and  poor  soil  conditions  invariably 
give  one  species  the  preponderance;  for  example:  Bald  Cypress  rules 
in  the  swamps  of  the  South,  Tamarack  in  those  of  the  North;  Nut 
Pines  prevail  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  Southwest;  Long 
Leaf  Pine  on  poor  sand  in  the  South;  Cuban  Pine  in  half  swamps  of 
the  South;  Red  Spruce  on  the  "Black  Slopes"  of  New  England; 
White  Spruce  in  Northern  Canada;  Lodgepole  Pines  on  old  burns; 
Jack  Pine  on  poor  sand  in  the  Lake  States. 

Pure  forests  are  sometimes  in  the  interest  of  the  owner,  for 
40 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

example:  Pure  Spruce  near  paper  mills;  Hickory  near  carriage 
works;  Tan  Bark  Oak  near  tanneries. 

A  long  rotation  often  leads  to  a  pure  forest,  a  short-lived 
admixture  being  gradually  pressed  out. 

Abroad  the  forester  is  required  to  maintain  the  fertility  and 
productiveness  of  the  soil.  Since  light-demanding  species  allow 
the  soil  to  be  baked  by  the  sun  during  the  pole  and  tree  stage 
of  the  forest  when  grown  purely,  an  admixture  of  shade  bearers 
is  advisable  and  is  obtained  by  underplanting. 

B.  Kinds  of  mixture. 

A  mixture  may  be  temporary  or  permanent;  a  mixture  may 
be  even  aged  or  uneven  aged;  the  species  may  or  may  not  differ 
in  height  growth;  the  mixture  may  be  composed  of  single  indi- 
viduals; or  of  strips,  rows,  bunches,  groups;  or  it  may  show  an 
irregular  character. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  original  character  of  the  mixture 
can  be  changed  entirely  by  the  forester  or  by  nature. 

C  Advantages  of  mixtures. 

Mixed  forests  take  advantage  of  existing  differences  of  soil 
qualities;  the  moisture-demanding  species  gradually  claiming  the 
dells  and  the  more  modest  kinds  obtaining  preponderance  on  the 
dry  plateaus  or  spurs. 

A  mixture  may  form  a  preventive  against  late  frost. 

A  mixture  is  better  protected  against  damages  by  fire,  insects, 
fungi,  storms,  snow,  etc.  At  Biltmore,  White  Pine  protects  the 
Shortleaf  Pine  admirably,  where  the  two  are  raised  in  alternating 
rows,  during  the  thicket  stage  against  damage  by  snow. 

A  mixture  produces  a  better  quality  of  humus  (Pine  and  Oak 
humus  is  better  than  pure  Oak  humus  or  pure  Pine  humus.) 

A  mixture  produces  a  larger  quantity  of  timber  for  the  above 
reasons  in  addition  to  the  fact  that  a  mixture  allows  its  com- 
ponents to  more  fully  utilize  the  productive  factors  of  the  air 
as  well  as  those  of  the  soil  throvigh 

a.  Difference  of  crown  formation,  crown  levels,  crown  density; 

b.  Difference  in  root  system    (tap  and  flat-rooters   mixed)  ; 

c.  Difference  in  mineral  and  light  requirements. 

A  mixture  also  tends  to  produce  cleaner  timber, — certainly  so 
for  the  benefit  of  light  demanders  when  placed  in  mixture  with 
shade  bearers. 

For  all  these  reasons  a  mixed  forest  may  be  said  to  produce  a 
larger  and  safer  revenue  than  a  pure  forest. 

41 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

\'aluable  species  miglit  be  raised  beyond  tlie  limits  of  their 
liabitnt  in  mixed  forests. 

D.  Objections  to  mixed  forest. 

The  administrative  and  the  sylvicultural  management  of  mixed 
woods  is  more  difficult  and  hence  more  expensive  than  that  of 
pure  woods. 

In  America  logging  expenses  are  much  increased  where  only 
one  species  can  be  utilized  in  mixed  forests.  Logging  for  Spruce 
on  "  Black  Spruce  Slopes  "  in  the  Adirondacks  is  relatively  cheaper 
per  thousand  feet  board  measure  than  logging  for  Spruce  where 
Spruce  forms  but  one-third  of  the  growing  stock.  This  objection 
does  not  hold  good,  of  course,  where  all  species  are  marketable  at 
the  same  time.  Still,  the  logging,  milling  and  marketing  of 
numerous  kinds  is  more  difficult  than  that  of  a  few. 

E.  Rules  governing  the  composition  of  a  mixture  and 
rules  for  treating  mixed  forests  (holding  good  for  artificial  and 
semi -artificial  forests) : 

I.  Species  selected  for  a  mixture  must  improve  one  another. 

II.  Each  species  should  occupy  that  section  of  ground  on  which 
it  thrives  best. 

III.,  The  mixture  should  at  least  maintain  the  productiveness 
of  the  soil. 

IV.  A  light-demanding  species  mixed  with  a  sliade  bearer  must 
either  be  given  an  advance  in  age  or  else  must  naturally  possess- 
an  advantage  in  rapidity  of  height  growth;  otherwise  it  soon  dis- 
appears. This  relative  height  growth  is  not  a  fixed  quantity;  it 
usually  differs  according  to  the  soil  and  to  the  climate. 

V.  The  denser  the  forest  cover  is,  the  earlier  and  the  more 
intense  must  be  the  help  given  to  the  species  likely  to  be  suppressed 
(Sassafras  and  Locust  in  mixture  with  Chestnut). 

After  Henry  Mayr,  species  which  are  botanically  dift'erent,  form 
the  most  natural  mixture  (Oak  and  Pine  at  Biltmore;  Birch  and 
Spruce  in  Balsams;  White  Pine,  Linden  and  Elm  in  Michigan).  The 
number  of  exceptions  to  this  rule  is  great  (Norway  and  Jack  Pine  in 
Michigan;  Red  Firs  and  White  Firs  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States). 


Paragraph  VIII.  Dr.  Henry  Mayr's  fundamental 
principles  of  Sylviculture. 

A.  Forest  is  possible  only  wlicrc  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  four  montlis  of  most  active  growth  averages  50  degrees  Faht.. 
or  over. 

42 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

B.  A  mean  summer  temperature  (May  to  August)  of  53 
to  59  degrees  Faht.  produces  the  Fir  and  Spruce  zone  of  Europe,, 
Asia  and  America.  A  mean  summer  temperature  of  59  to  64 
degrees  is  productive  of  Beech,  also  of  White  Oak,  Maple,  Hemlock 
and  Chamaecyparis.  A  knowledge  of  the  summer  mean  is  essential 
when  introducing  exotics.  A  knowledge  of  the  possibilities  of  forest 
growth  in  a  given  country  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  mean  summer 
temperature. 

Some  very  modest  trees  are  unreliable  as  indicators  or  ther- 
mometers  (e.  g.  Pinus  echinata,  Pinus  ponderosa). 

C.  A  species  may  be  grown  far  from  its  original  habitation^ 
provided  that  the  local  climate  of  the  new  region  is  analogous  to 
that  of  the  old.  If  the  exotic  comes  from  a  warmer  climate,  it 
should  be  placed  on  south  ylopes  with  plenty  of  sun;  if  it  comes 
from  a  colder  climate  it  should  be  placed  in  moist  soil  and  on 
cool  aspects.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  adaptation  of  trees  to  a 
different  climate,  or  as  acclimatization  of  trees.  Walnut,  Peach, 
and  Black  Locust  have  been  grown  in  Germany  for  centuries,  be- 
cause the  climate  of  naturalization  was  and  is  essentially  identical 
with  that  of  the  natural  habitat  of  the  trees. 

D.  Tree  specimens  of  a  cold  climate  do  not  possess  in. 
themselves  any  special  power  of  resistance  to  frost.  It  is  useless  to 
import  seeds  from  colder  climates  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  greater 
hardiness. 

E.  Species  of  trees  growing  in  hot  localities  or  else  in 
open  stands  place  comparatively  small  claims  on  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.  All  species  bear  shade  better  when  brought  to  a  warmer 
climate  and  require  more  light  when  brought  to  a  colder  one. 

F.  In  level  countries,  at  not  over  500  feet  elevation,  the 
habitation  of  a  species  depends  on  latitude  considerably  modified 
by  sea  winds.  In  many  countries,  away  from  the  ocean,  that 
modification  is  so  strong  as  to  create  a  dependence  of  the  habitation 
more  on  longitudes  than  on  latitudes.  In  high  mountain  regions, 
altitude  may  produce  effects  similar  to  those  of  latitude:  it  is, 
therefore,  a  mistake  to  label  one  species  as  a  mountain  species  and 
another  as  a  plains'  species.  In  Eastern  North  America  Picea 
rubens,  in  Western  North  America  Douglas  Fir,  also  Abies  grandis 
and  amabilis,  bear  witness  to  this  truism. 

G.  The  climatic  needs  of  a  species  are  better  characterized 
by  the  forest  zone  than  by  the  latitude  or  the  altitude  at  which  or 
up  to  which  it  grows.     Even  a  knowledge  of  altitude  and  latitude 

43 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

combined  furnishes  insufficient  information  relative  to  such  climatic 
needs. 

H.  If    there    are   found   two   neighboring    species   of   the 

same  genuo  in  a  given  climatic  zone,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  these 
two  species  were  not  mix?d  originally,  but  that  each  had  its  dis- 
tinct habitation  and  that  the  mixture  is  due  to  the  action  of  man. 

I.  In  primitive  forests,  the  species  which  harmonize  are 

those  which  diflVr  botanically. 

J.  When  two  kinds  are  so  alike  as  to  be  almost  varieties 
but  have,  nevertheless,  different  climatic  needs,  then  they  are,  in 
reality,  true  and  distinct  species  (Douglas  Fir  in  Colorado  and 
Oregon ) . 

K.  Frost  injury  is  always  due  to  the  death  of  the  Plas- 
modium killed  by  the  direct  action  of  the  frost.  The  plasmodium 
is  most  sensitive  during  the  time  of  cell  formation  and  of  active 
growth.  The  plasmodium  in  the  inert  stage,  as  in  seeds,  is  actually 
insensitive. 

L.  All  species  become  more  hardy  as  they  grow  older.  This 
is  simply  due  to  the  trees  rising  above  the  cold  layers  of  tempera- 
ture near  the  ground  and  to  the  greater  thickness  and  mass  of  the 
trunk,  resisting  rapid  changes  of  temperature. 

M.  The  degree  of  moisture  in  the  air  required  for  forest 
^owtli  is  50%  relative  humidity  during  the  growing  season.  The 
broad-leaved  trees  and  the  two  and  three  needled  Pines  are  the 
species  best  adapted  to  regions  of  extreme  dryness  or  of  sudden 
changes  in  atmospheric  moisture. 

N.  The  association  of  trees  into  a  forest  has  the  effect 
of  increasing  tlie  relative  humidity  by  not  to  exceed  10%.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  maintaining  forest  in  regions  where  the  tension  of 
watery  vapor  is  close  to  50%.  The  partial  destruction  of  a  forest 
may  entail  the  death  of  the  remainder  rendering  reforestation  im- 
possible unless  it  is  started  from  the  nearest  adjoining  forest. 
Inside  a  forest  the  greater  atmospheric  humidity  acts  as  beneficially 
aa  a  moist  ocean  wind,  lacking,  however,  the  latter's  violence. 

O.  It  is  in  moist,  cool  localities  (mountains  and  northern 
climate)  that  climate  variations  are  the  least  extreme  during  the 
growing  season.  It  is  here  that  the  annual  rings  are  equal,  the 
grain  fine  and  regular,  and  the  timber  of  the  greatest  commercial 
utility. 

44 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

•P.  The  moister  the  climate,  the  easier  becomes  forest  cul- 
ture, and  the  forester  is  apt  to  make  the  least  mistakes  in  thin- 
nings, regeneration  fellings,  etc.  Air  moisture  seems  to  exercise  a 
favorable  influence  on  the  straightness  of  tJie  stems. 

Q.  A    failure    of    rain    for    several    days    may    be    fatal 

to  young  plants.  The  faculty  of  persistence  increases  with  age, 
and  the  grown  trees  can  endure  long  periods  of  drought.  If, 
however,  the  lack  of  rain  is  such  as  to  bring  the  sum  total  of 
precipitations  during  the  four  months  of  the  growing  season  below 
the  two-inch  mark,  then  the  forest  disappears,  even  if  the  humidity 
of  the  air  remains  above  50%.  Exception:  Immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  lakes  and  rivers  with  their  sub- soil  percolation. 

R.  A  fairly  moist  soil  is  the  best  for  all  species  in 
their  optimum  climate.  In  hotter  places  the  locality  must  be  more 
damp,  while  in  colder  ones  it  may  be  dry  without  hindering  growth 
(White  Pine  in  the  Southern  Appalachians  in  swamps,  in  Canada  on 
dry  soil;  Sitka  Spruce  in  W^ashington  on  wet  land;  In  Alaska  on 
dry  land). 

S.  Snoiv  protects  those  parts  of  a  plant  which  it  covers; 
it  increases  the  danger,  however,  for  the  parts  just  above  the  snow 
level.  Snowy  winters  are,  therefore,  useful  to  low  plants,  but 
harmful  to  trees. 

T,  As  regards  the  winds,  the  most  dangerous  are  those 
following  the  direction  of  the  barometric  minima,  which  travel  in 
North  America  and  in  Europe  from  west  to  east;  in  East  Asia 
from  south  to  north.  Next  dangerous  are  the  winds  traveling  in 
the  opposite  direction,  whilst  those  from  other  points  of  the  com- 
pass are  more  harmless.  Every  mountain,  however,  creates  a  de- 
flection of  the  current  and  possibly  a  return  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

U.  In  their  youth,  the  trees  are  almost  indiff'erent  to  the 
quality  of  the  soil;  with  increasing  age  their  exigencies  increase. 
Thus  plantations  on  poor  soil  may  thrive  well  for  a  number  of 
years,  to  be  suddenly  arrested  at  the  beginning  of  the  pole  stage. 

V.  In  their  most  suitable  situation  (natural  optimum)  a 
species  succeeds  on  soil  of  any  mineral  descrijition.  Ih  a  less  favor- 
able climate  the   soil   requirements   of  the   species  increase. 

W.  The  light  most  favorable  to  activity  of  the  chlorophyl 
is   not  the   light   of   the   blazing   sun,   nor   is    it   the   diff'used   light 
coming  through   rain   or   fog,  but   that  light  which   is   reflected   by 
45 


AMERICAN.   SYLVICULTURE 

brilliant  white  clouds.  Leaf  cover  overhead  is  favorable  when  it 
filters  the  rays  of  a  burning  sun  and  unfavorable  when  it  excessively 
reduces  the  intensity  of  insolation.  LTnder  a  continental  climate, 
cloudless  days  are  more  numerous  than  near  the  coast.  The  influ- 
ence of  thinnings  and  removal  cuttings  on  the  remaining  growth, 
consequently,  depends  on  the  continental  position  of  a  forest, — not 
solely  on  species  and  soil. 

X.  The  regeneration  of  forests  approaching  exploitable  age 
is  easiest  in  their  optimum  climate.  If  the  climate  is  too  warm, 
seed  will  be  more  abundant,  and  the  young  plants  will  endure  cover 
better.  The  moisture  of  the  air,  however,  is  wanting,  and  the 
denser  cover  overhead  may  intercept  too  much  of  the  needed  rain- 
fall. 

If  the  climate  is  too  cold,  the  moisture  of  the  air  indeed 
increases;  but  the  production  of  seeds  and  the  persistence  under 
■cover  decrease. 

Y.  In  mixed  forests,  artificial  regeneration  is  more  diffi- 
cult than  natural  regeneration.  A  clean  felling  results  in  a  capri- 
cious complication  of  natui-al  laws  and  phenomena  whose  contrary 
actions  are  not  easily  understood.  Natural  regeneration,  a  mixture 
of  species  suitable  to  the  locality,  a  crop  resembling  as  closely  as 
possible  the  primitive  state,  such  are  the  conditions  which  the 
forester  should  seek  to  realize  for  the  avoidance  of  dangers  as  well 
as  for  the  greatest  possible  yield  of  the  most  valuable  produce.  No 
method  of  treatment  harmonizes  better  with  nature's  laws  than 
the  so-called  selection  system,  when  each  tree  is  placed  in  a  con- 
dition most  favorable  to  its  development,  and  when  no  single  tree 
is  removed  for  a  purpose  other  than  that  of  regeneration  or  im- 
provement of  the  crop. 


46 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  SEED  FOREST 
Paragraph  IX.     Genesis  of  the  seed  forest. 

A  second  growth  can  be  started  or  born  either  naturally  (from 
stump  shoots,  root  suckers  and  self-sown  seed)  or  artificially  (by  . 
planting  seeds,  seedlings  or  cuttings).  Forests  born  from  stump 
sprouts,  root  suckers  and  cuttings  are  called  "  coppice  forests  "  or 
"  sprout  forests."  Forests  born  from  seeds  or  seedlings  are  termed 
"  high  forests  "  or  "  seed  forests." 

A.  Planting  in  Europe. 

Prior  to  the  year  1830,  the  European  foresters  did  not  know, 
practically  speaking,  of  forest  nurseries.  The  forests  were  regener- 
ated by  Natural  Seed  Regeneration  (N".  S.  R.,  pronounce  "enesar"), 
where  seed  forests  were  desired,  or  else  were  raised  by  planting 
the  tree  seeds  directly  on  the  site  where  the  second  growth  was 
intended  to  stand. 

Since  the  year  1830,  seedlings,  raised  in  forest  nurseries,  were 
planted  on  an  increasing  scale.  Now-a-days,  in  central  Europe,  the 
forester  bent  on  artificial  regeneration  of  his  stand  of  timber  prefers 
planted  seedlings  to  seeds  directly  planted,  especially  in  the  case 
of  Yellow  and  White  Pine,  Spruce,  Ash,  Maple  and  Larch.  Beech 
and  Fir  are  invariably  regenerated  abroad  from  self-sown  seed; 
also  Oak  in  France,  while  in  Germany  acorns  are  planted  usually. 

B.  Advisability  of  planting  in  America. 

Excepting  the  case  of  the  prairies  and,  possibly,  the  case  of 
fields  abandoned  by  farmers  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  idea  of  arti- 
ficial propagation  of  forest  crops  (by  planting)  seems  preposterous 
in  America.  As  long  as  an  acre  of  virgin  forest  can  be  bought  for 
a  lesser  sum  of  money  than  is  required,  in  the  same  locality,  for  the 
successful  re-forestation  of  an  acre  of  ground,  the  chances  for  a 
remunerative  outcome  of  planting  seem  slim.  However,  the  fol- 
lowing points  should  not  be  lost  sight  of: 

I.  The  stumpage  prices  apt  to  prevail  in  America  in  the  year 
1960  are  likely  to  equal  those  now  prevailing  abroad.  Hence  the 
47 


A  M  E  R  I  C  A  N     S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

same  practice  wliioh  is  now  remuneiative  abroad  must  prove  paying 
in  tiiis  country;  possibly  more  paying  for  the  .reason  that  the  value 
of  the  soil  on  which  the  growing  crop  must  yield  an  annual  dividend 
is  abroad  about  ten  times  as  high  as  it  is  in  the  United  States. 

II.  An  expense  for  taxes  and  administration  is  incurred  annually 
by  the  forest  owner,  whether  the  ground  is  kept  fully  or  only 
partly  stocked;  hence  it  seems  a  remunerative  venture  to — at  least — 
reinforce  natural  regeneration  by  artificial  planting. 

III.  The  growth  of  weeds  naturally  plentiful  in  primeval  con- 
ditions cannot  be  overcome  unless  radical  artificial  remedies  are 
adopted. 

C.  On  the  otlier  hand,  tlie  following  objections  to  planting 
must  be  considered: 

I.  As  long  as  the  American  forest  is  much  endangered  by  fire,  it 
is  unwise  to  invest  any  money  in  young  growth  for  which  the 
danger  of  destruction  by  fire  is  excessive. 

II.  Trees  of  a  condition  now  considered  "weeds"  may  gradually 
attain  a  stumpage  value  (as  Chestnut  at  Biltmore). 

III.  Even  European  forestry  is  now  reverting  to  a  natural  propa- 
gation of  forests  owing  to  the  dangers  usually  inherent  to  artificial 
planting. 

D.  Definitions. 

The  word  reforestation  is  used  if  the  area  to  be  planted  has 
been  previously  occupied  by  tree  growth. 

The  word  afforestation  is  used  if  there  was  no  tree  growth  on- 
the  plot  for  a  number  of  years  beforehand. 

The  term  "  direct  seeding  "  is  applied,  by  the  Forest  Service  of 
the  United  States,  to  reforestation  in  all  cases  where  the  seeds  are 
planted  precisely  on  those  sites  in  which  the  trees  are  meant  to  be 
raised. 

Direct  seeding  is  distinguished  from  indirect  seeding  or  seeding 
in  nurseries.  In  the  latter  case,  the  seeds  are  planted  within  forest 
nurseries,  on  seedbeds.  The  seedlings  raised  in  the  nurseries  are 
planted  ("  Qutplanted ")  on  those  sites  wliich  the  trees  are  meant 
to  re-stock. 


Paragraph  X.     The  Seed. 

The  (juality  of  seeds  is  shown  by  their  size,  weight,  color,  scent. 
A  tree  standing  in  an  open  position,  not  too  young  and  not  too  old,. 
]iroduces  the  best  seeds. 

48 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

A.  Seed   years: 

The  atmospheric  condition  of  the  year  or  years  during  which 
tlie  seed  is  formed  influence  the  quality  of  the  seed.  Drought  in 
summer  and  early  frosts  in  fall  cause  the  seeds  to  drop  immature. 
Black  Oaks  and  Pines  require  two  years  for  the  formation  of  seeds. 
Juniper  three  years.  It  seems  as  if  all  trees  require  a  number  of 
years  for  the  preparation  of  seeds,  inasmuch  as  the  medullary  rays 
before  a  seed  year  are  found  full  of  starch,  and  after  a  seed  year 
devoid  of  starch.  This  phenomenon  may  explain  the  periodical 
occurrence  of  seed  years  in  Bamboo  and  Canebrakes,  in  Chestnut, 
Oak,  Beech,  Pine,  etc. 

The  length  of  the  period  elapsing  between  seed  years  depends  on 
the  local  climate  and  the  position  of  the  trees,  being  short  for  trees 
standing  in  orchard-like  positions  on  warm  and  sheltered  ground 
where   abundant  heat  allows   of  the   rapid  accumulation  of   starch. 

B.  Rest: 

After  dropping  from  the  tree,  all  seeds  undergo  a  period  of  rest 
in  our  climate.  This  rest  is  very  short  in  the  case  of  Cottonwood, 
Willow,  Elm  and  Soft  Maple.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  in  Eastern 
North  America,  it  lasts  from  November  to  April.  In  rare  cases 
(C4erman  Ash,  German  Linden,  Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam)  the  period  of 
inactivity  covers  about  seventeen  months.  Seeds  which  get  too  dry 
while  stored,  often  show  a  prolonged  period  of  rest.  For  White 
Oak  acorns  the  period  of  rest  is  but  one  month;  for  Red  Oak  acorns 
five  months.  The  assumption  that  frost  is  required  during  the 
resting  period  for  the  benefit  of  the  seed  is  erroneous.  The  germin- 
ating percentage  is  greatest  immediately  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
period  of  rest. 

C.  Tests: 

Germinating  tests  are  made  with  from  50  to  200  grains. 

I.  Water  test  applicable  to  large  seeds.  Thrown  in  water,  the 
good  seeds  will  sink,  and  the  bad  seeds  will  float. 

II.  Cutting  tests,  made  with  a  knife,  used  for  testing  acorns, 
chestnuts,  nuts  of  Nutpines,  also  seeds  of  Ash,  Yellow  Poplar, 
Beech,  etc. 

III.  Hot-pan  tests  for  conifers,  which  causes  good  seeds  to  jump 
and  burst,  poor  seeds  to  burn  and  char. 

IV.  Pot  tests  made  in  the  following  manner:  Fill  the  lower  half 
of  a  flower  pot  with  sawdust,  the  upper  half  with  sand  in  which  the 
seeds  are  imbedded.  Place  the  pot  in  a  basin  partially  filled  with 
water,  in  a  warm  room. 

49 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

V.  Flannel  test:  Place  the  seeds  between  two  strips  of  flannel 
kept  moist  by  running  their  ends  into  a  bowl  of  water  standing  at 
a  lower  level. 

VI.  Test  in  the  commercial-test  apparatus,  which  consists  of  a 
bottom  plate  (glass  or  china),  a  bell-shaped  top  (same  material)  and 
a  clay  disk  containinng  100  small  grooves,  which  fits  into  the  bottom 
plate.  All  three  parts  are  open  in  the  center.  The  clay  disk  is 
burned  in  such  a  way  as  to  retain  good  hygroscopic  qualities,  and  is 
boiled  for  a  number  of  hours  (in  water)  before  using,  to  kill  adher- 
ent spores  of  fungi.  Moist  sand  is  kept  between  the  disk  and  the 
bottom  plate.     The  grains  of  seed  are  inserted  into  the  grooves. 


Paragraph  XI.    Preparations  for  direct  seeding. 

The  germinating  bed  must  offer  the  seed  a  proper,  constant  and 
equal  supply  of  heat,  oxygen  and  moisture.  The  actual  amount  of 
heat,  oxygen  and  moisture  required  has  not  been  ascertained  scien- 
tifically. Observation  in  the  woods  is  the  best  teacher  of  tlie  condi- 
tions securing  the  largest  possible  germinating  percentage  for  any 
given  species. 

The  preparation  for  seed-planting  may  extend  over  the  eniire 
area  to  be  planted;  or  over  certain  strips  which  may  be  inter- 
rupted or  continuous;  or  it  may  merely  involve  the  grubbing  of 
plots,  or  the  stirring  of  spots.  WTiere  the  ravages  of  game  are 
feared,  it  is  advisable  to  work  the  soil  irregularly,  and  not  in  a 
geometric  order. 

A.  Removing  the  soil  covers,  such  as  briars,  Kalmia,  Cliin- 
qviapin,  mosses,  dead  leaves,  humus.  A  plow  and  grubber  (cultivator) 
or  a  harrow  can  not  be  used  usually  for  the  purpose;  the  hoe  (a 
strong  make)  is  largely  used  abroad;  weeds  are  removed  with  brush 
hooks  or  scythes  or  machetes  or  are,  if  possible,  killed  by  deaden- 
ing. In  certain  cases,  an  iron  rake  might  do.  Often  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  the  cover  by  fire;  fire,  however,  produces  a  heavy  growth 
of  weeds  on  fertile  soil  (in  Pisgah  forest). 

B.  lioosening  tlie  soil.  Just  after  logging,  the  soil  has 
enough  porosity  to  allow  of  the  development  of  a  second  growth. 
On  abandoned  fields  or  in  prairies,  thorough  working  with  the  plow, 
often  continued  for  a  number  of  years,  may  or  must  precede  the  act 
of  planting. 

50 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Paragraph  XII.     Securia^     and     preparing    the 
seeds. 

A.  European  tree  seeds  are  usually  bought  from  reliable 
dealers,  who  rival  in  furnishing  the  best  seed  at  the  lowest  price, 
guaranteeing  a  certain  percentage  to  germinate.  In  America,  the 
forester  must  secure  seeds  himself,  collecting  them  by  contract,  or 
preferably,  by  day  work.  Some  European  sylviculturists  insist  that 
seeds  should  be  taken  from  the  best  and  strongest  trees  exclusively. 
Mayr  considers  special  care  superfluous. 

The  experiments  conducted  at  Trippstadt,  Germany,  in  con- 
nection with  this  problem,  are  of  intense  interest:  Seeds  of  Pinus 
sylvestris  were  obtained  from  Finland,  Belgium,  Hungary,  France, 
and  Bavaria;  were  planted  in  the  same  nurseries;  and  were  out- 
planted  on  the  same  planting  site,  by  the  same  workmen  and  at  the 
same  time.  After  seven  years  from  the  time  of  planting,  the  planta- 
tions made  with  the  various  local  strains  or  varieties  of  one  and  the 
same  botanical  species,  Pinus  sylvestris,  exhibit  very  striking  con- 
trasts in  their  respective  rates  of  growth,  in  their  ramification, 
in  their  endurance  of  atmospheric  calamities,  in  the  ease  of  sub- 
duing the  weeds  surrounding  the  young  plants,  etc. 

B.  By  "  coning  "  is  understood  the  extrication  of  coniferous 
seeds  from  the  cones  encasing  them.  "  Coning "  of  Spruce,  Pine, 
Eir  and  Larch  on  a  commercial  scale  is  practiced  in  Europe  by  Henry 
Keller,  Appel  &  Co.  and  A.  Lecoq,  all  of  Darmstadt,  Germany. 

Certain  Pine  species  (Nutpines)  have  wingless  seeds.  The  wings 
of  other  Pine  seeds  hold  the  grain  in  a  claw. 

The  seed  of  Spruce  lies  in  the  wing  as  in  a  spoon;  the  seed  of 
Larch  and  Fir  is  attached  to  the  wing  and  is  not  easily  separated. 

Among  the  broad-leafed  "  cone  bearers  " — Alders,  Birches  and 
Magnolias — the  "  coning  "  of  Magnolias  alone  offers  some  difficulties. 

L  The  methods  of  "coning"   are  as  follows: 

a.  Coning  by  insolation,  the  oldest  and  safest  method.  Traya, 
the  bottoms  of  which  contain  open  lath  work  or  wire  netting,  are 
placed  in  the  sun  and  removed  to  a  shed  if  rain  threatens  to  fall. 
The  cones  are  spread  on  the  trays  in.  layers  not  over  two  cones  deep 
and  are  stirred  with  a  rake.  In  place  of  trays,  drums  might  be  used 
to  good  advantage.  In  New  Mexico,  the  cones  are  spread  on  beaten 
clay  soil.  At  Biltmore,  flat  barn  roofs  have  answered  the  purpose. 
In  a  cold  climate  the  sun  process  allows  the  seeds  to  be  obtained 
but  at  a  time  too  late  for  seed  planting.  The  germinating  per- 
■centage  of  seeds  obtained  by  the  sun  process  is,  otherwise,  superior 
to  that  of  seeds  coned  by  other  methods. 
51 


A  M  K  K I C  A  N    SYLVICULTURE 

b.  Coning  by  stove  heat. 

It  is  essential  that  the  heat  in  the  coning  room  should  not 
reach  110  degrees.  Thorough  ventilation  is  required  to  prevent 
sweating  and  moulding  of  cones.  The  cones  are  spread  in  the 
coning-room  in  thin  laj-ers  on  shelves  or  screens,  through  the  inter- 
stices of  which  the  seeds  drop.  The  cones  are  stirred  three  or  four 
times  a  day. 

It  is  unwise  to  have  the  stove  in  tlie  coning-room.  An  American 
liot-air  furnace  in  the  basement  is  well  adapted  to  furnish  the  heat. 

Many  of  the  large  European  forest  administrations  have  such 
or  similar  arrangements  for  coning. 

c.  Commerical  method. 

In  the  commerical  establishments,  heat  is  supplied  by  steam 
pipes,  controlled  by  automatic  devices.  The  trays  or  drums  are 
kept  in  a  rocking  motion  by  machinery.  The"  seeds,  after  falling 
through  the  interstices  of  the  trays,  are  at  once  conducted  to  a^ 
cool  room. 

II.  Separating  the  seeds  from  their  wings. 

In  the  case  of  Pine  and  Spruce  seeds,  flailing  is  sufficient.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  wet  the  seeds  before  flailing.  For  Larch,  rubber 
millstones  are  used,  the  distance  between  the  stones  being  equal 
to  the  smallest  diameter  of  the  seed. 

III.  Cleaning  the  seed  from  dust,  needles  and  wings.  The  seeds 
are  freed  from  admixtures  by  fanning,  shoveling,  centrifuge  or  any 
grain-cleaning  machine.  The  large  commercial  establishments  drop 
the  seeds  on  endless  rolls  of  cloth,  which  are  moving  on  an  incline. 
The  heavy  seeds  slide  down,  whilst  dust  and  wings  are  carried 
uphill. 

IV.  Work  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service: 

a.  Extracting  seeds:  The  Forest  Service  obtains  tile  seeds  of 
Douglas  Fir,  of  Spruce,  and  of  Pine  in  the  West  by  drying  the  cones 
on  canvas.  The  canvas  is  raised  above  the  ground  during  wet 
spells  and  rolled  up  into  a  sack  if  need  be.  The  cones  of  Lodge 
Pole  Pine  can  be  collected  in  summer.  The  Lodge  Pole  cones  might 
be  soaked  before  drying,  to  facilitate  opening.  Twelve  square  feet 
of  canvas  are  required,  on  an  average,  per  bushel  of  cones.  Tempera- 
tures of  140  degrees  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  seeds. 

b.  Cleaning:     For  the  cleaning  of  seeds  are  used: 

(a)  Fanning  mills. 

(b)  Corn  shellers. 

(c)  Two   boards,   in   the   case   of   Juniper   berries,    between 

which  the  berries  are  rubbed. 
52 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 
c.  Results  of  Forest  Service  seed  collection: 


Species 

Germi- 
nating 
percent- 
age 

No.  of 

lbs. 

per 
bushel 

Seeds 
per  lb. 

Cost 
per  lb. 

Commer- 
cial 
price 
per  lb. 

55 
75 
51 
86 
83 
51 
67 
57 
55 

18 
60 

4 

1.1 

1 

8' 

43,000 

9,000-13,500 

2,400 

3,100 

120,000 

400,000 

400,000 

28,000 

26,000 

55,000 

75,000 

175,000 

$1.20 
0.80 

0^50 
4.00 

2^00 
1.26 

3 '.00 
1.50 
1.20 

$2.50 

Western  Yellow  Pine 

Sugar  Pine  . . 

Jeffrey  Pine 

Xodge  Pole 

Sitka  Spruce 

2.25 
3.00-7^00 

Western  Red  Cedar 

Western  White  Pine 

Eastern  White  Pine 

Red  Pine 

4.00 
3.00-4.00 

Engelniann  Spruce 

Coulter  Pine 

4.25 
3  00 

All  of  the  data  tabulated  refer  to  cleaned  seeds,  free  from  wings,  dust  and  dirt. 

V.  Statistical  notes. 

a.  Spruce  in  the   Adirondacks    (after  Clifford  R.  Pettis). 

1.  Cost  of  picking  cones  50  cents- per  bushel   (green). 

2.  One  bushel  of  green  cones  yields  tAvo  bushels  of  dry  cones, 
^containing  ly^  pounds  equal  to  I1/2  quarts  of  Spruce  seeds. 

3.  One  bushel  of  cones  weighs   60  pounds,  one   bushel  of  seeds 
40  pounds. 

4.  One  pound  of  seed  contains  150,000  grains. 

5.  It  costs  95  cents  to  collect,  cone  and  clean  one  pound  of  seeds. 

b.  White  Pine  at  Biltmore. 

1.  100  bushels  of  cones  will  weigh  2,200  pounds  (a  "long  ton"). 

2.  One    bushel   contains    600    to    700   cones,   and    yields,    on   an 
.average,  Vo  pound  of  absolutely  clean,  wingless  seeds. 

3.  One  pound  of  such  seed  contains  25,000  to  30,000  grains. 

c.  Yellow  Pine  (ponderosa)  in  New  Mexico  (after  Wm.  H.  Mast). 

1.  One  bushel  of  cones  yields  1.55  pounds  of  clean  seed. 

2.  The    expense    of    collecting,    coning    and    cleaning    averages 
•23  cents  per  pound. 

d.  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  in  New  Mexico   (after  Wm.  H.  Mast). 

1.  One  bushel  of  cones  yields  1.2  pounds  of  clean  seeds. 

2.  The   expense   of   coning,  collecting  and   cleaning  averages   23 
■<;ents  per  pound. 

e.  Shortleaf  Pine   (Pinus  echinata)   at  Biltmore. 

One  bushel  of  cones  yields  one  pound  of  clean,  wingless  seeds 
:at  an  expense  of  $1.00  per  pound. 
53 


A  M  E  K  I  C  A  X     S  Y  L  ^'  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

C.  Seeds    stored   beyond   the    duration    of   their   natural 

period  of  rest  sliow  a  reduced  percentage  of  germination.  The  per- 
centage might  be  increased  by  the  use  of  slightly  acid  solutions,. 
lime  Avater  or  hot  water.  Coniferous  seeds  are  often  placed  in  cold 
water  for  three  to  seven  days  previous  to  planting;  seeds  thus 
treated,  howcA-er,  must  be  supplied  after  planting  with  moisture 
artificially  if  drought  sets  in. 

The  United  States  Forest  Service,  under  the  guidance  of  Mr. 
Raphael  Zon,  has  made  extensive  experiments  concerning  the  best 
conditions  for  the  storage  of  seeds.  Seeds  were  stored  at  thirteen 
different  locations,  so  as  to  get  the  influence  of  the  locality  on 
retention  of  vitality.  At  each  locality  one  part  of  the  seeds  was 
kept  in  the  office  above  freezing,  another  in  an  outside  barn,  and 
a  third  in  a  cellar.  Storing  in  basements  has  proven  best  so  far. 
Seeds  stored  in  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  were  best  as  to  locality. 
In  Washington  City,  seeds  stored  at  6  degrees  F.  gave  the  best 
results. 

Tests  are  now  being  made  showing  the  influence  of  the  con- 
tainer on  vitality;  amongst  these  are  tested  "manila"  containers, 
bags  soaked  in  paraffin,  oil-cloth  bags,  and  sealed  glass  containers. 
The  best  results  were  obtained  so  far  in  sealed  glass  containers, 
and  the  poorest  in  oil-cloth  bags. 

D.  The  "malting"  of  seeds  (placing  the  seeds  in  heaps,, 
moistening  them  and  stirring  them  in  a  warm  room)  is  a  rather 
dangerous  procedure.  After  Weise,  Douglas  Fir  and  "\Miite  Pine 
seeds  shoiild  be  mixed  with  moist  and  fertile  soil  and  stable  manure, 
to  be  then  exposed  to  a  hot-house  temperature  until,  the  germs  begin 
to  show.  S.  B.  Green  recommends  to  pour  boiling  water  on  the  seeds 
of  Locust,  Honey-Locust  and  Coffee-tree,  and  to  allow  the  seeds 
to  remain  in  the  water  until  it  is  cold,  planting  immediately 
thereafter. 


Paragraph  XIII.     Direct  seeding. 

Seeds  should  not  be  planted  on  rainy  days,  especially  not  on 
clay  soil.  For  broadcast  planting,  the  area  to  be  planted  and  the 
seed  are  divided  into  equal  lots.  The  quantity  of  seed  allotted  to 
the  unit  of  space  is  divided  into  halves.  Each  half  is  sown 
separately  by  going  over  the  ground  crosswise. 

Broadcast  planting  is  rare  nowadays. 

Rough  nursery  beds,  (either  nmning  full  length  of  the  area  or 
interrupted  beds),  furrows  or  banks  are  frequently  provided.  Nar- 
54 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

row  trenches  may  be  pressed  into  the  beds  or  banks  with  the  help 
of  a  board,  a  hoe  handle  or  a  wheel. 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  by  hand,  possibly  with  the  help  of 
a  beer  bottle,  a  so-called  seed  horn,  or  with  a  seed-planting  machine. 
The  machine  should  be  used  on  grovmd  as  well  prepared  as  a  seed- 
bed in  a  nursery.  t 

"  Covering "  purports  to  place  or  rather  press  the  seeds  into 
contact  Avith  the  mineral  soil  on  all  sides;  to  prevent  sudden 
changes  of  air  temperature  from  striking  the  seed;  to  prevent  the 
seeds  from  drying  out  under  excessive  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
cover  must  be  such  as  to  allow  a  young  germ  to  push  its  cotyle- 
dons through  the  cover  easily.  The  seeds  keeping  their  cotyledons 
below  ground   (Oaks,  Sassafras,  Chestnut)    allow  of  a  heavy  cover. 

In  the  case  of  coniferous  seeds,  a  proper  cover  is  secured  with 
the  rake  or  with  a  brush  drag;  or  by  marching  the  planters,  a  band 
of  sheep  or  a  herd  of  cattle  over  the  plantation.  Heavy  seeds 
are  often  strewn  on  the  ground  without  any  preparation  and  then 
covered  with  a  shovelful  of  dirt.  In  America  seed-planting  in  the 
open  is  unadvisable  as  long  as  the  prices  of  seeds  maintain  their 
present  level. 

"  Planting  of  cones  "  was  the  leading  method  used  a  hundred 
years  ago  by  European  foresters.  The  cones  were  strewn  on  the 
ground  and  stirred  periodically,  by  sheep,  with  good  results. 

Seeds  more  than  one-quarter  inch  thick,  especially  nuts,  are 
usually  dibbled  with  a  dibbling  hammer,  wedge,  knife,  hoe,  spade, 
etc.  The  hole  made  should  place  the  seed  at  the  best  depth.  The 
hole  is  closed  by  side  pressure,  by  the  foot  or  the  hammer,  or  by 
allowing  a  lifted  sod  to  drop  back  into  place.  The  common  plant- 
ing spade  puts  the  seeds  too  deep. 

A.  The  quantity  of  seeds  used  per  acre  depends  on: 

Price  of  seed. 

Density  of  stand  desired. 

Tenderness,  sensitiveness  and  rate  of  growth  of  species. 

Local  damage  from  late  frost,  drovight,  weeds,  insects,  mice, 
squirrels,  rabbits,  game,  birds,  etc. 

Quality  of  both  soil  and  seeds. 

Fineness  of  prepared  soil. 

Method  of  planting  by  hand  or  machine,  regular  or  irregular, 
broadcast  or  in  patchwork.  Planting  seeds  in  bands  or  strips 
requires  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  broadcast  amount;  planting 
in  patches  one-half,  in  seedspots  one-fourth  of  the  quantity  required 
for  broadcasting. 

55 


A  M  E  K I C  A \     SYLVICULTURE 

B.  Figures  adopted  at  Biltmore  for  broadcast  planting 

are,  per  acre: 

White  Oak  and  Chestnut  Oak.  12  bu. 

Red  Oak  and  BUick  Oak,  S  bu. 

Ash,  40  lbs. 

Beech,  130  lbs. 

Maple,  40  lbs. 

Elm,  24  lbs. 

Birch,  32  lbs. 

Firs,  45  lbs. 

Spruce,  10  lbs. 

Larch,  10  lbs. 

Yellow  Pine,  8  lbs. 

^Vhite  Pine,  12  ibs. 

C.  Small    seeds:     Number    of    seeds    in    one    pound     (ap- 

proximateljf,  all  coniferous  seeds  vvitliout   wings)  : 

Asli 6,200 

Elm 55,000 

Silver  Fir   9,000 

Tamarack 70,000 

White  Pine    30,000 

Maple 5,000 

Birch 80,000 

European  Spruce    56,000 

Scotch  Pine    70,000 

Eastern   Spruce   150,000 

Western  Y'ellow  Pine   12.000 

D.  Large  seeds:    Number  of  seeds  in   one  bushel  are: 

^Miite  Oak   8,000 

Red  Oak   3,000 

Walnuts   800 

E.  Work  of  the  Forest  Service:  The  Forest  Service  has 
tried  direct  seeding — first  in  1905,  with  phenomenal  success,  in  the 
Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota.  Since  that  time  the  success  obtained 
has  been  more  limited.  In  1910,  approximately  14,000  acres  were 
planted  by  direct  seeding  in  the  National  Forests.  Seventy-five 
per  cent,  of  all  Service  planting  is  seedspot  work. 

After  Raphael  Zon,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  the  following  quan- 
tities of  seed  should  be  used  for  direct  seeding  in  the  National 
Forests: 

56 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 


Species  of  Trees 

Pounds  per  Acre 

Broadcast 
method 

Seedspot 
method 

3  -5 

5  -8 
1^3 

6  -10 
8  -12 
li-3 

li-2i 
6  -8 
5  -7 
8  -10 
8  -10 
8  -10 
8  -10 

7 

1 
1 

P 

3 
3 
3 

1' 

2 

Western  Yellow  Pine 

Engelmann  Spruce 

Lodge  Pole       

Western  White  Pine         

Noble  Fir 

Grand  Fir 

Red  Pine 

Arizona  Cypress 

Big  Tree 

In  the  case  of  seedspots,  Mr.  R.  Zon  figures  on  spots  12-20 
inches  square,  with  the  sod  thrown  on  the  South  side,  or  else  below 
the  spot,  the  spots  to  be  spaced  6  by  6  feet,  and  12  seeds  (only)  to 
be  used  per  spot. 

The  cost,  per  acre,  incurred  by  the  Forest  Service  for  direct 
seeding  in  the  National  Forests  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
land,  the  method  used,  and  on  the  species  of  trees  to  be  raised. 
Mr.  R.  Zon  gives  the  following  figures  for  three  different  classes 
of  land  seeded  directly: 


Cost  per  Acre 

Norway 

Yellow 

Douglas 

Spruce 

Pine 

Fir 

1st .Class: 

Level  and  open  country,  light  soil,  no 
debris. 

$ 

$ 

$ 

(a) 

Seed-spot  method:     Spots  12  in.  sq.. 

6  ft.  apart.  12  grains  per  spot:— 

2.10 

3.70 

2.49 

(b) 

Double  furrows   8   ft.   apart,   8  seeds 
per  foot    of    furrow,   harrowed   be- 

fore and  after  seeding:— 

3.75 

13.03 

5.79 

(e) 

Broadcasting,    without    soil    prepara- 

tion, 100,000  seeds  per  acre:— 

1.52 

12.62 

4.22 

2nd.CIass: 

New     burns     on     moderately     level 
ground,    large    quantities   of   down 
timber:  soil,  clay-loam. 

(a) 

Seedspots  12  in.  sq.,  9  ft.  apart.  10-15 

seeds  per  spot: — 

1.86 

2.55 

2.00 

(b) 

Broadcastmg    without    soil    prepara- 

tion:— 

1.65 

12.75 

4.35 

3rd  Class: 

Steep  slopes,  down  timber,  loose  rock, 

(a) 

Seedspots,  12  in.  sq.,   6  ft.   by  6  ft., 
ground   dug  up   4  in.   deep,    10-15 

seeds  per  spot: — 

2.20 

3.89 

2.59 

(b) 

Broadcasting    without    soil    prepara- 

tion:— 

1.85 

12.95 

4.55 

57 


A  :M  E  K  I  C  A  N     SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  XIV.     Season  for  direct  seeding. 

For  Cottonwoods,  Elms  (excepting  Eed  or  Slippery  Elm),  Soft 
Maple  and  Mulberry,  the  best  time  of  planting  is  nature's  time, — 
immediately  after  the  fall  of  the  seeds — in  early  summer.  In  the 
case  of  the  species  enimierated,  the  period  of  rest  is  very  short  and 
the  seedlings  starting  rapidly  have  time  to  lignify  before  winter. 
In  all  other  cases  the  forester  may  plant  either  in  fall  or  in  spring. 
Planting  in  winter  is  usually  prevented  by  the  condition  of  the  soil. 

A.  Planting  in  fall  invites: 

I.  Inroads  of  animals  in  winter. 

II.  Washing  of  seed  when  snow  melts. 

III.  Damage  from  late  frost,  since  planted  seeds  sprout  early 
in  spring. 

B.  Spring   planting   necessitates: 

I.  Expense  for  seed  storage  over  winter. 

II.  Checks  during  storage,  injurious  to  germinating  percentage. 

III.  Higher  expense  for  planting,  the  work  taking  place  at  a 
time  when  labor  is  scarce. 

Spring  planting  forms  the  rule,  except  with  Fir,  Beech,  Chest- 
nut, ^Ylnte  Oak. 

In  semi-tropical  regions  or  places  of  periodical  drought,  the  best 
planting  time  is  the  fortnight  preceding  the  rainy  period.  On  dry 
soil  seeds  are  planted  as  early  in  spring  as  possible  so  as  to  profit 
from  the  moisture  left  by  melting  snow. 

Seeds  which  naturally  germinate  18  months  after  maturity 
(Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam,  some  Ashes,  some  Basswoods)  require  strati- 
fication: Place  seeds,  in  dry  soil,  in  a  ditch  ten  inches  deep  and  ten 
inches  wide,  to  a  depth  of  five  inches.  Cover  seeds  with  straw  and 
dry  weeds,  and  finally  with  dirt.  After  the  lapse  of  a  year  the 
seeds  are  ready  for  planting. 

In  the  Rockies,  and  also  on  the  Pacific  Coa*t,  fall  seeding  is 
preferable  to  spring  seeding.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  for 
Wyoming  and  Eastern  Montana  the  early  spring,  and  that  for 
Arizona  and  Xew  Mexico  the  summer  are  the  most  desirable  periods 
for  direct  seeding   (R.  Zon). 

Paragraph  XV.     Auxiliaries  to  direct  seeding. 

A.  Means  to  protect  species  needing  shade  in  earliest 
youth. 

I.  Plant  seeds  with  oats,  barley  or  summer  rye,  planting  the 
grain  in  quantities  not  to  exceed  75%  of  the  normal.  Cut  grain 
58 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

crops  high.  This  method  was  used  regularly  100  years  ago,  for 
European  Pine  and  White  Oak,  possibly  with  a  view  to  early^ 
retiu-ns,  possibly  to  avert  ravages  of  field  mice  and  birds. 

II.  Certain  species,  tender  and  shade  demanding  in  early  youth, 
like  Beech  and  Fir,  cannot  well  be  raised  in  the  open,  unless  an 
usher  growth  12  to  15  years  older  (of  Yellow  Pine,  Sassafras,  Black 
Locust,  Birch)  is  previously  started  on  the  ground.  The  usher 
growth  is  gradually  removed  Avhen  the  seedlings  underneath  w^ant 
"  skylight."  In  semi-arid  parts  such  usher  growth  is  perhaps 
doubly  advisable;  further  in  prairies,  where  Poplars  and  Willows, 
Box  Elder  and  Soft  Maple  might  serve  as  ushers. 

B.  Means  to  protect  the   seed  plantation  from   animals 

and  weeds. 

I.  Against  seed-eating  animals.  Planting  in  late  spring  offers 
some  protection.  Planting  in  sprouting  condition  protects  heavy 
seeds  from  rodents;  slight  coating  of  red  lead  protects  conifers 
from  birds.  A  watchman  might  be  kept  on  large  plantations,  to 
scare  the  birds  away.  By  coating  large  seeds  with  tar,  crows 
might  be  kept  away. 

On  wild  land  the  damage  by  rodents  is  much  greater  than  it  is 
on  land  in  cultivation  or  on  large  burns.  Tree  seeds  are  more  liked 
by  birds  than  are  farm  grains.  In  the  West,  rodents  must  be 
poisoned  prior  to  any  direct  seeding.  The  United  States  Biological 
Survey,  on  the  basis  of  extensive  investigations,  recommends  dif- 
ferent poisons  for  the  different  rodents,  as  follows: 

(a)  Formula  for  poisoning  chip-munks  and  ground  squirrels: 

Strychnia  sulphide,  one  ounce,  and  saccharine,  one  tea- 
spoon, are  dissolved  in  water  by  boiling.  Add  one-half  cup- 
of  laundry  starch,  one  quart  of  water,  and  boil  till  the  mass 
thickens.  Then  mix  the  poison  with  20  pounds  of  barley, 
securing  a  thorough  coating  of  the  grains  of  barley.  The 
best  season  is  spring  and  early  simimer. 

(b)  Formula  for  mice: 

Heat  IG  quarts  of  wheat  slightly;  sprinkle  thereon  one 
ounce  of  acid,  alcaloid,  or  sulphide  of  strychnia  and  one 
teaspoonful  of  saccharine;  that  done,  mix  the  poisoned 
wheat  with  one  pint  of  melted  tallow. 

(c)  Formula  for  rabbits: 

Use  the  twigs  of  fruit  trees  in  lievi  of  barley;  otherwise 
proceed  as  for  chip-munks. 
One  bushel  of  poisoned  grain  will  serve  40  acres  thoroughly. 
59 


A  ]M  E  R  I C  A  N    SYLVICULTURE 

II.  Against  weeds.  Light  covers  of  weeds  are  no  disadvantage. 
AVhere  weeds  are  heavy,  seedlings  should  be  planted,  rather  than 
seeds.  Mowing  (with  scythe)  weeds  and  crushing  briars — prefer- 
ably before  weeas  are  seeding — is  recommended.  Where  seeds  are 
planted  in  rows  or  furrows  on  abandoned  fields,  cultivation  checks 
•weeds. 

III.  Against  domestic  animals.  Pasture  is  not  permissible  in 
seed  plantations  before  the  thicket  stage  is  past. 

C.  Reinforcing.  Bare  spots  trhere  the  seeds  have  failed 
are  usually  reinforced  by  planted  seedlings.  The  latter  are  taken 
from  adjoining  dense  spots.  In  broad-leaved  species,  the  blanks 
where  seeding  has  failed,  had  better  be  marked  during  the  preceding 
summer. 


Paragraph  XVI    Direct    seeding   of  the  broad- 
leaved  species. 

A.  Acorns. 

The  germinating  acorn  leaves  the  cotyledons  below  ground. 
If  the  first  shoot  is  killed  another  forms  at  once.  A  shelter  (or 
usher)  growth  to  husband  a  plantation  during  its  first  years  is 
bardly  needed.  Still  plantations  of  Yellow  Piue  made  to  protect 
the  Oaks  planted  between  the  Pines  are  often  found  abroad.  Its 
long  tap  root  prevents  the  Oak  from  being  lifted  by  frost. 

The  soil  cover  given  varies  between  one  and  three  inches, 
according  to  the  looseness  and  porosity  of  the  soil.  In  case  of 
spring  sowing,  germination  requires  from  five  to  six  weeks. 

White  Oak  and  Chestnut  Oak  acorns  planted  in  fall  are  often 
found  sprouting  before  Christmas.  The  blumula  in  such  cases, 
however,  does  not  appear  above  the  ground.  Red  Oak  and  Black 
Oak  seem  to  sprout  only  in  spring. 

Acorns  may  be  sown  broadcast,  especially  on  abandoned  fields, 
•or  may  be  planted  with  oats  and  barley  or  summer  rye.  The  cover 
is  given  with  a  harrow  in  ease  of  broadcast  planting. 

More  often  acorns  are  planted  in  furrows  from  two  to  seven 
feet  apart.  It  is  better  to  plant  acorns  closely  within  furrows 
far  apart,  than  sparingly  in  furrows  near  together.  The  cover  is 
given  either  by  a  second  furrow  or  by  lioe  or  rake. 

Cultivation  between  rows  (during  summer)  is  practiced  abroad, 
in  the  Rhine  valley,  for  three  or  four  years.      On  abandoned  fields, 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH' 

cultivation  seems  required  for  the  purpose  of  checking  mice,  squir- 
rels, rabbits  and  weeds. 

Where  acorns  are  planted  for  mixture  merely  with  Beech,  Pine 
and  Chestnut,  irregular  patches  are  planted  or  else  "  oversoiling " 
is  used.  In  the  latter  case,  a  handful  of  acorns  is  roughly  covered 
by  a  shovelful  of  dirt. 

The  usual  method  adopted  abroad  for  raising  Oak  is  dibbling. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  dibbled  acorns  from  being  placed 
too  deeply. 

The  answer  to  the  question  whether  spring  or  fall  planting  is- 
better,  depends  on  the  number  of  enemies  preying  on  the  acorns  in 
winter.  Since  the  Black  Oaks  are  not  much  molested,  it  might  be 
as  well  to  plant  them  in  fall.  Black  Oaks  suffer  little  in  germinat- 
ing percentage  during  winter  storage.  W^hite  Oak  acorns,  however, 
are  much  eaten  by  mice,  squirrels,  turkeys,  hogs,  etc.,  and  would 
be  planted  in  spring  if  winter  storage  did  not  invite  a  large  loss 
of  germinating  percentage.  For  wintering  White  Oak  acorns,  it 
is  best  to  place  them  (imitating  nature)  in  slight  layers  under  a 
cover  of  leaf-mould  on  fairly  dry  soil. 

After  Charles  Heyer:  Large  baskets  are  roughly  made  on  dry 
soil,  the  bottom  and  walls  lined  with  moss;  within  are  placed 
alternate  layers  of  moss  or  sand  and  acorns.  The  basket  is  roofed 
with  straw. 

After  Von  Alemann:  Ditches  8  feet  wide  by  10  inches  deep  are 
made  on  dry  soil.  The  acorns  must  not  be  too  wet  when  put  into 
the  ditch.  The  cover  consists  of  a  layer  of  vegetable  matter.  A 
rough  hut  is  made  all  over  the  ditch,  out  of  slabs,  bark,  twigs,  etc. 
The  acorns  are  stirred  up  twice  a  week  during  winter. 

Heyer's  method  also  requires  a  steep-walled  ditch  around  the 
place  of  storage  to  keep  mice  out.  Possibly  it  might  be  wise  to 
keep  soaked  acorns  submerged  in  running  water. 

After  Hillerieh  (Forstnieister  at  Mitteldick)  frost-proof  cellara 
are  constructed,  some  6  foot  deeper  than  the  surface  of  the  soil,, 
stone-walled  and  stone-floored.  The  roof,  straw-covered  or  tile- 
covered,  is  made  fairly  airtight.  The  acorns  ore  spread  on  the 
floor  in  layers  up  to  2  feet  deep,  and  are  stirred  over  from  week 
to  week. 

B.  Chestnuts. 

Chestnuts   require   more   fertile   and   hence   better-prepared   soil 

than  acorns.      The  nut  has  still  more  enemies  than  the  White  Oak 

acorn.      Its  germinating  power  is  much  reduced  by  dry  storage  over 

winter.      The  devices  for  storing  acorns  might  be  used  as  well  for 

61 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

chestnuts.  Possibly  storage  in  the  husk  is  preferable.  Small 
quantities  are  stored  in  bran.  At  Biltmore  the  planting  of  Cliest- 
nut  on  abandoned  fields  is  very  unsuccessful,  owing  to  enemies  and 
poorness  of  soil.  Abandoned  fields  in  Pisgah  Forest  often  show 
fair  growth  of  chestnut — on  better  soil,  especially  on  moister  soil. 
No  experience  is  at  hand  relative  to  nut-plantations  on  good  land 
newly  cut  over.  Chestnuts  dibbled  in  at  Biltmore  to  form  a  lower 
story  beneath  Yellow  Pine  are  always  eaten  by  squirrels. 

C.  AValnuts. 

Walnuts,  both  Black  and  \Miite,  can  be  held  over  winter  like 
potatoes,  without  loss.  Yet  fall  planting  is  better  where  squirrels 
do  not  endanger  the  nuts. 

\Valnut  has  done  well  planted  in  furrows  on  abandoned  fields 
at  Biltmore  where  soil  was  good,  without  cultivation;  on  poor 
soil  the  weeds  are  choking  it  to  death.  Tlie  dibbling  of  walnut 
into  woods  just  cut  over  has  been  badly  handicapped  in  Biltmore 
and  Pisgah  Forest  by  squirrels.  Otherwise  dibbling  is  the  best 
method  in  the  woods.  Possibly  the  attacks  of  squirrels  might  be 
prevented  by  late-spring  dibbling  of  nuts  in  sprouting  condition. 

D.  Birch. 

Birch  seeds  are  very  small,  two-winged.  European  price  for 
Betula  lenta,  lutea  and  nigra,  $2.50  per  pound;  Betula  papyrifera, 
62  cents  per  pound;  for  European  White  Birch  (Betula  alba),  8  cents 
per  pound.  Germinating  percentage  is  bad,  especially  if  seeds  are  not 
kept  in  loose  storage.  The  soil  requires  little  preparation  for  seed 
planting.  A  large  layer  of  mould  must  be  removed.  Seed  can  be 
planted  any  time  from  fall  to  spring.  The  old  foresters  used  to 
plant  the  seed  on  the  snow — so  as  to  have  the  seeds  washed  into 
the  soil  by  the  melting  snow. 

The  southern  Birches,  being  solitary,  might  be  planted  in 
irregular  patches  or  trenches,  or  in  places  where  the  mineral  soil 
is  exposed  by  the  fall  of  trees  whirled  out  of  the  ground  with 
stumps  and  roots.  European  Birch  is  very  modest,  thriving  well  on 
dry  soil. 

The  seedlings  are  very  hardy.  They  suffer,  however,  from 
weeds,  grass  or  leaves  blown  over  them  and  depriving  them  of  air 
and  sunlight.     Betula  lenta,  at  Biltmore,  is  apt  to  "damp  off." 

E.  Beech. 

Nuts    appear    every   three    to    seven   years    in    the    woods.      In 

Michigan,  the  fall  of  1911  brought  a  full  mast.      The  nuts  ripening 

in   October   had   better   be   planted   at   once   after   ripening,   though 

much  endangered  in  winter  by  mice.      Storage  over  winter,  possible 

62 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

as  in  White  Oak  acorns,  requires  still  more  care.  If  spring  planting 
is  resorted  to,  nuts  germinate  within  five  or  six  weeks.  Beech 
seedlings  must  have  a  shelter  growth,  and  cannot  survive  in  the 
open  (excepting  moist  mountain  slopes).  The  preparation  of  the 
soil  is  made  Avith  hoe  or  spade  roughly,  to  a  depth  of  three  inches. 
Abroad,  Beech  is  often  used  for  an  undergrowth  in  pole  woods  of 
Pine,  Oak,  Tamarack,  Ash,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  improving  the 
humus  and,  indirectly,  the  boles  of  the  trees  forming  the  upper 
story.  "  Beech  is  the  mother  of  the  soil,"  because  it  furnishes  the 
best  humus.  Beech  is  exacting;  it  requires  strong  and  moist  soil. 
Pure  forests  of  Beech  are  found  in  the  Southern  Appalachians  at 
4,000-4,500  feet,  with  Poplars  as  standards  in  an  upper  story;  pure 
beechwoods  are  frequent  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  the  Adirondacks 
and  in  Michigan.  The  price  of  German  Beechnuts  is  two  pounds 
for  five  cents. 

F.  Alders. 

The  Western  Alder,  Alnus  Oregona,  and  the  European  Alder 
are  valuable,  while  the  Eastern  Alder  is  only  a  shrub  lining  the 
creeks.  European  Alder  is  invaluable  as  a  swamp  tree  and  for 
plantations  on  very  binding  soil  (clay  pits).  The  seed  of  the 
European  species  is  worth  10  cents  per  pound.  Seeds  ripen  in 
October  and  are  best  kept  over  winter  in  the  cones.  The  small 
seedling  is  not  sensitive  to  heat  and  cold,  but  suffers  under  the 
heavy  grass  usually  found  in  swamps.  Since  swamps  are  inaccessi- 
ble in  early  spring,  planting  of  seedlings  is  preferable  to  direct 
seeding.  The  Western  Alder  is  the  common  usher  for  Lawson's 
■Cypress. 

G.  Ash. 

Seeds  are  abundant,  showing  about  70%  germination.  The 
seedling,  in  the  first  year,  develops  to  a  length  of  eight  or  ten 
inches,  from  seeds  covered  with  three-eighths  inches  of  dirt.  Little 
preparation  of  soil  is  needed.  During  the  first  two  years,  on  good 
soil,  a  heavy  shelter  overhead  is  easily  borne.  American  \Miite 
Ash  may  be  grown  on  soil  subject  to  long  inundations. 

"Wliite  Ash  is  exacting.  Within  one  and  the  same  acre  planted 
in  White  Ash,  where  the  eye  can  scarcely  perceive  any  undulations 
of  the  soil,  the  plantation  may  do  excellently  in  slight  depressions, 
and  miserably  on  slight  elevations. 

Prices  of  Ash  seeds:  European  Ash,  4  cents  per  pound;  White 
Ash,  25  cents  per  pound. 

At  Biltmore,  White  Ash  seeds  planted  in  rows  six  feet   apart 
have  done  well  when  the  soil  cover  was  not  too  heavy. 
63 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

H.  Maple. 

Hard  Maple  seeds  ripen  in  September.  Silver  and  Red  Maple 
seeds  in  June.  It  is  wise  to  plant  the  seeds  just  when  ripe.  Price 
of  seeds:  Acer  rubrum,  $.3.00  per  pound;  Silver  Maple,  $1.00  per 
pound;  Sugar  Maple,  80  cents  per  pound;  European  species,  4  cents 
to  5  cents  per  pound.  The  green  germ  of  American  Maples  is  said 
to  die  if  the  seeds  are  not  planted  at  once.  Soft  Maples  develop 
the  seedling  in  the  year  of  the  seed.  For  seeds  to  be  planted  in  the 
woods,  the  soil  is  prepared  with  the  rake,  and  the  seeds  covered 
with  one-half  inch  of  soil.  Maple  planted  on  abandoned  fields  on 
Northern  slopes,  well  watered  and  well  drained,  is  likely  to  be 
successful.  The  young  seedlings  are  sensitive  at  the  time,  when 
the  cotyledons  first  appear  above  the  ground,  and  a  cover  overhead 
is  advisable,  where  late  frost  prevails.  On  rocky  soil  in  Northern 
coves,  Maple  seed  is  often  strewn  on  the  rocks,  the  rain  being 
expected  to  wash  the  seeds  into  the  crevices.  Sugar  Maple  is  more 
exacting  than  Soft  Maple.  It  does  not  grow  so  well  in  damp  soil 
as  Soft  or  Red  Maple.  Acer  negundo  (Ash  Leaf  Maple)  does  well 
in  the  northern  prairies.      Seeds  ripen  in  fall. 

I.  Elms. 

Seeds  flat,  roundisli,  winged,  the  wing  surrounding  the  seeds. 
Seeds,  ripening  in  June,  must  be  planted  at  once,  since  they  cannot 
be  kept  in  dry  storage  (except  Slippery  Elm).  Germinating  per- 
centage is  always  small.  Elms  require  such  good  soil  that  they 
cannot  be  raised  except  on  strong,  northern,  moist  soil  of  agricul- 
tural value.  Elm  seed  is  never  planted  broadcast;  in  suitable 
localities,  seed  might  be  planted  in  patches  on  soil  roughly  prepared 
with  rake.      Very  little  cover  must  be  given. 

Seeds  cost:  Ulmus  anierieana  22  cents  per  pound.  Ulmus 
campestris  6  cents  per  pound. 

J.  Buckeye. 

The  Asiatic  species  is  valuable  in  game  parks,  its  fruit  being 
eaten  by  deer  and  boar.  The  American  species  are  poisonous  (llava 
and  glabra).  Seeds  ripen  in  October,  are  stored  without  loss,  but 
can  as  well  be  planted  in  fall.  After  Weise,  the  seeds  should  be 
planted  with  the  navel  down.  First  class  soil  (Ohio)  is  required, 
or  at  Biltmore  strong  North  coves  at  higher  altitudes,  where  Buck- 
eye is  sometimes  found  in  small  groves.  Planted  in  furrows  on 
abandoned  fields  (Biltmore),  Buckeye  has  shown  rapid  progress 
during  the  first  year,  but  has  since  made  but  small  shoots.  Seeds 
of  the  Asiatic  species  cost  214  cents  per  pound. 
C4 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

K.  Black  Locust. 

The  seeds  ripen  in  fall  and  are  easily  kept  over  winter  un- 
injured by  mice,  birds  or  insects.  To  prevent  seeds  from  lying 
over,  S.  B.  Green  advises  to  pour  boiling  water  over  them  just 
before  planting,  a  treatment  causing  many  seeds  to  sprout  at  once. 
The  fleshy,  oval  cotyledons  and  the  primordial  leaves  are  not 
pinnate.  The  tree  is  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  optimum  depth 
of  covering  (the  depth  of  long  diameter  of  seed)  since  it  does 
best  when  covered  2  to  3  inches  deep.  The  seedlings  are  sensitive 
to  late  frosts.  The  planting  had  better  be  delayed  until  the  danger 
of  frost  is  past.  The  price  of  seeds,  5-10  cents  per  pound,  renders 
Locust  seeds  the  cheapest  seed  obtainable  since  the  germinating 
percentage  is  high.  The  seedlings  grow  until  late  fall,  when  they 
reach  nearly  two  feet  in  height.  At  Biltmore,  Black  Locust  is 
planted  into  Oak  coppice  on  raked  patches,  with  the  rake,  and  oh 
abandoned  fields  in  furrows  5  to  6  feet  apart.  Five  pounds  per 
acre  is  enough.  Plantations  suffer  from  ground  mice  and,  later  on, 
from  insects  (Cyllene,  Ecdytolopha).  Locust  thrives  on  agricul- 
tural soil;  it  is  used  in  Europe  to  reforest  the  Hungarian  prairies; 
further  along  railroad  cuts.  Forest-grown  Locust  is  superior  to 
field-grown  Locust. 

L.  Hickories. 

The  nuts  of  the  thin- shelled  species  (ovata  and  minima)  can- 
not be  held  over  winter  and  require  fall  planting.  Seed  planta- 
tions suffer  from  mice  and  squin-els,  and  especially  from  voles, 
which  bite-off  the  seedlings  below  ground,  row  after  row.  Bitter- 
nut  seems  exempt  from  such  attacks.  The  seedling,  in  the  first 
years,  spends  all  its  energy  in  developing  a  large  tap  root.  The 
plantations  at  Biltmore  made  in  furrows  on  abandoned  fields  might 
have  succeeded  better  had  they  been  cultivated  continuously  to 
check  the  mice  and  voles.  Hickory  needs  fertile,  fresh  soil;  the 
"  Hickory  flats "  in  the  virgin  forest  are  convertible  into  superior 
farm  land.  Hickoria  ovata,  1.3  cents  per  pound;  Bitternut,  Pignut 
or  Mockernut,  15  cents  per  pound. 

M.  Linden  or  Basswood. 

Seeds  falling  in  early  fall  are  always  poor.  The  ripe  seed  (in 
bunches,  attached  to  wingbracts)  falls  in  late  fall  or  winter.  Linden 
is  very  exacting  and  pure  woods  are  very  rare.  Planted  in  the 
forest,  it  serves  but  as  an  admixture.  Seeds  are  planted  in  spring 
on  soil  roughly  prepared  with  rake  or  hoe.  The  cotyledon  is 
typically  five-pronged,  hand  shaped.  Tlie  young  plant  is  so  sensi- 
tive that  cover  overhead  is  strongly  advisable. 
65 


A  ]M  E  R  I  C  A  N     S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  iv  E 

N.  Cucnmber  tree. 

Seeds  ripening  in  cones  late  in  fall  are  removed,  with  great 
trouble,  by  hand.  Many  seeds  lie  over.  The  seedling  develops  on 
good  soil  a  very  long  and  strong  shaft.  For  forest  planting, 
Cucumber  is  used  but  in  patches,  mixed  with  Chestnut  and  Yellow 
Poplar. 

O.  Yellow  Poplar   or  Tulip   Tree. 

Seeds  appear  annually;  of  very  low  germinating  percentage. 
Nature  plants  the  seed  between  October  and  May,  slowly  dis- 
membering the  cone.  Seeds  may  be  planted  in  spring  after  loose 
storage.  The  cones  are  apt  to  heat  and  mould,  if  tightly  packed. 
The  cotyledons  (size  of  a  nickel)  do  not  show  the  typical  lack 
of  the  tip  of  the  leaf  blade.  They  drop  off  (in  strong  seedlings) 
before  July  15th.  Seedlings  do  not  suffer  from  mice.  Heavy  rains, 
however,  are  apt  to  wash  them  out  of  the  ground.  The  young 
seedling  stands  a  good  deal  of  shade.  If  deprived  of  light  entirely, 
it  is  certain  to  be  killed  by  the  first  frost.  Seeds  cost  15  cents  per 
pound.  Large  quantities  are  required  for  planting,  say  50  pounds 
per  acre.  The  seedling  grows  fast,  at  the  age  of  two  years  it  is 
three  feet  high,  on  good  soil.  "Wliere  seeds  are  planted  in  the 
woods,  it  is  necessary  to  check  the  weeds,  especially  on  north  slopes. 

P.  Sassafras. 

It  might  be  planted  on  poor  abandoned  fields  as  usher  growth. 
At  Biltmore,  seeds  gathered  in  late  summer  have  failed  to  sprout, 
whether  planted  in  fall  or  spring.  Tlie  fleshy  cotyledon  is  kept 
below  ground  at  a  depth  of  one  and  one-half  inches.  Possibly,  the 
seed  must  pass  through  a  bird  before  it  can  sprout,  or  the  flesh 
must  be  removed  by  hand  or  by  malting. 

Q.  Black  Cherry. 

Primeval  trees  are  found  on  fairly  rich  soil.  The  Cherry, 
however,  can  be  easily  raised  on  abandoned  fields  not  better  than 
those  at  Biltmore.  During  early  youth,  until  pole  stage,  mice  and 
rabbits  peel  the  bark  badly.  The  end  of  the  annual  shoot  is  almost 
always  killed  in  winter.  The  small  purple  fruits  ripening  in  early 
autumn  are  eagerly  eaten  by  birds.  The  seeds,  after  passing 
through  the  bird,  are  scattered  all  over  the  woods.  The  seeds  are 
easily  kept  over  winter,  but  lie  over  if  kept  in  a  dry  condition.  A 
hot-water  bath  before  planting  might  cause  the  seeds  to  germinate 
speedily.  In  woods,  Cherry  should  be  planted  under  one-half  inch 
dirt  cover,  irregularly,  Avith  full  enjoyment  of  light.  Seed  50  cents 
per  pound.  The  seeds  might  be  planted  in  rows  on  abandoned 
fields  in  mixture  with  Pines  more  cheaply  than  the  seedlings. 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

R.  Black  Gum. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  nas  never  been  raised  on  a  large  scale,  owing 
to  the  low  value  of  its  timber.  As  an  undergrowth  or  admixture 
with  Hickory,  Ash,  Oak,  etc.,  it  might  prove,  however,  a  valuable 
tree,  owing  to  its  dense  leaf  canopy  and  owing  to  its  shade-bearing 
qualities.  The  seeds,  cherry-like,  dark  blue  in  fall,  of  acid  taste, 
seem  to  appear  annually,  and  old  trees  are  often  surrounded  by 
an  abundance  of  seedlings;  the  latter,  very  light  colored,  are  four 
inches  high  by  July,  showing  two  heavy  oval  entire  cotyledons, 
whilst  the  primordial  leaves  show  the  proper  form.  Seedlings  do 
not  seem  to  suffer  from  frost,  heat  or  animals.  On  abandoned  fields, 
however,  Black  Gum  seems  to  come  up  from  sprouts  and  not  from 
seeds.      The  seed  is  not  on  the  market. 


Paragraph  XVII.     Direct  seeding  of  the   conif- 
erous  species. 

A.  Firs. 

Very  intensive  shade-bearers,  the  Firs  cannot  be  raised  wdthout 
shelter  overhead.  The  young  seedling  suffers  much  from  frost  and 
heat.  Its  six  to  ten  cotyledons  show  two  white  stripes  on  the 
upper  side.  The  young  plant  is  apt  to  die  from  leaves  smothering 
it.  Its  height  growth,  to  the  seventh  year,  is  small  whilst  the 
seedling  tries  to  establish  a  root  system  and  to  cover  its  growing 
space  by  long  side  branches.  Fir  is  usually  planted  in  irregular 
patches  as  an  admixture,  moss  and  mould  being  raked  away.  The 
seeds  losing  vitality  quickly  when  winter-stored  (unless  stored  in 
the  disintegrating  cones)  are  usually  planted  in  the  fall,  in  spite  of 
impending  ravages  of  mice  and  birds.  The  covering  is  from  one- 
fifth  to  one-third  of  an  inch.  Since  the  cones  begin  to  dissolve  in 
November,  they  must  be  gathei'ed  in  early  winter.  Abies  concolor, 
$3.00  per  pound;  Abies  fraseri,  $3.50  per  pound;  Abies  amabilis, 
$4.50  per  pound;  Abies  balsamea,  $1.00  per  pound;  Abies  grandis, 
$3.00  per  pound;  Abies  magnifica,  $5.00  per  pound;  Abies  nobilis, 
$2.00  per  pound;  Abies  pectinata,  5  cents  per  pound. 

B.  Spruce. 

Seeds  ripen  in  the  year  of  the  flower  and  are  emitted  from  the 
cones,  which  have  become  pendulous,  between  November  and  April, 
The  seeds  are  easily  wintered  either  Avithin  or  without  the  cones; 
after  some  authors,  preferably  in  the  cones.  Seed  years  occur  at 
intervals  of  about  five  years.  The  germinating  percentage  is  high. 
67 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

The  seeds  are  usually  planted  late  in  spring  after  bird  migration, 
either  broadcast  on  ground  roughly  raked,  or  more  often  on  inter- 
rupted beds  from  one  to  two  feet  wide,  prepared  with  hoe  and 
slightly  raised  over  the  general  ground  level.  It  is  said  that  a 
man  can  plant  one  acre  of  ground  in  eight  hours,  using  the  rake. 
Previous  to  planting  it  is  wise  to  moisten  the  seeds  for  three  to 
five  days  in  cold  water,  especially  if  the  seeds  are  planted  in  late 
spring.  The  cover  should  be  one-fifth  inch.  Germination  takes 
place  after  four  weeks  with  from  six  to  eight  cotyledons,  serrate  on 
the  upper  side.  Young  plants  are  sensitive  to  drought  and  readily 
raised  by  the  frost.  Spruce  suffers  from  suppression  by  weeds  and 
leaves.  Its  height  growth  is  more  rapid  than  that  of  Fir.  Prices 
of  seeds:  Picea  canadensis,  $L10;  excelsa,  13  cents;  engelmanni, 
$5.50;   rubens,  $4.25;   pungens,  $5.00;   sitkaensis,  $5.50  per  pound. 

C.  Yellow  Pines. 

On  dry  sandy  soil,  it  is  wise  to  plant  in  early  spring,  so  as  to 
find  a  moist  seed  bed.  The  young  seedlings  do  not  suffer  from 
late  frosts  and  are  not  apt  to  be  lifted  by  winter  frosts.  The 
removal  of  stumps  stops  the  attacks  of  stump-breeding  bark  beetles 
and  snout  beetles  (weavils).  Intensive  loosening  of  the  soil  invites 
the  attacks  of  junebugs,  wire  worms,  etc.,  and  is  not  needed  on 
sandy  soil.  Broadcast  seeding  is  advisable  on  soil  slightly  covered 
with  grass;  the  cover  should  just  be  scratched  with  the  harrow. 
The  seed,  unless  planted  with  the  rake,  is  embedded  in  the  soil  by 
driving  sheep,  cattle  and  hogs  over  it.  Before  planting  it  might 
be  wise  to  fire  the  ground,  notably  so  in  the  case  of  Jack  Pine, 
Lodgepole  Pine  and  Norway  Pine.  Yellow  Pine  is  never  planted 
in  seedspots,  since  it  comes  up  in  larger  groups,  of  even  age. 
Planted  under  shelter  it  would  not  obtain  enough  sunlight.  Tlie 
seeds  are  often  planted  on  long  strips  two  or  three  feet  wide, 
separated  by  trenches,  the  weeds  and  dirt  removed  from  the 
trenches  being  heaped  on  the  strips.  On  the  very  driest  soil,  Jack 
and  Red  Pine  will  do  in  the  north;  in  the  south,  Long  Leaf  Pine. 
The  moisture  demands  of  Pinus  taeda  exceed  those  of  Pinus  mitis. 
Wet  ground  is  required  by  Cuban  Pine.  Pinus  ponderosa  may  grow 
on  any  soil  and  aspect,  north  and  south.  European  Pine  should 
not  be  tried  in  places  where  snowfall  is  heavy.  The  sand  dunes 
at  San  Francisco  are  planted  in  Monterey  Pine.  A  method  much 
used  abroad  some  80  years  ago  was  the  planting  of  Pine  cones 
(eight  bushels  of  cones  per  acre).  The  cones  were  turned  from 
time  to  time  by  a  brush  drag.  Another  old  method  for  raising  Pine 
consisted  in  planting  the  seeds  on  top  of  oats,  barley  or  summer  rye. 
68 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

The  cover  given  should  be  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  The  seeds  are 
mulched  for  three  to  seven  days,  before  planting,  in  cold  water. 
Old  seeds  are  apt  to  lie  over  for  a  whole  year.  Germination 
occurs  in  from  three  to  four  weeks.  The  first  leaves  stand  singly, 
and  not  in  sheathed  bunches.  The  primordial  leaves  are  strongly 
serrate.  The  germinating  percentage  is  high,  say  seventy  to  ninety 
per  cent.  The  seedlings  of  Pinus  rigida  creep  on  the  ground  the 
first  two  years  as  if  dwarfed.  Prices:  Banksiana,  $5.00;  mur- 
rayana,  $100.00;  inops  or  virginiana,  $1.10;  jeffreyi,  $4.00;  mitris, 
$10.00;  ponderosa,  $2.50;  pungens,  $4.50;  resinosa,  $9.00;  rigida, 
$2.50;  European  Scotch  Pine,  50  cents;  tuberculata,  $4.50;  taeda, 
$10,00;  palustris,  $4.50  per  pound.  In  Jack  Pino,  Lodgepole  Pine 
and  Table  Mountain  Pine  the  seed  is  not  emitted  for  a  number  of 
years  from  mature  cones.  At  Biltmore,  mitis  drops  the  seed 
between  November  1  and  December  15;  Palustris  seeds  seem  to  drop 
before  December  15,  since  seedlings  appear  by  middle  of  January. 

In  the  arid  West,  and  notably  in  the  National  Forests  of 
Arizona,  the  Forest  Service  has  met  with  unexpected  difficulties  in 
the  afi'orestation  of  its  lands  with  Western  Yellow  Pine.  There 
are  dry  winds  in  spring;  and  September  already  brings  heavy  frosts 
which  are  more  disastrous  than  is  drought.  The  seedlings,  nursery- 
raised,  and  kept  in  cold  storage  till  the  rainy  season  begins,  are 
killed  by  the  early  frosts.  Transplants,  with  deep-going  roots, 
three  years  old,  supposed  to  be  drought-resisting,  have  died. 

The  Service  has  now  adopted  the  following  recipe:  The 
nurseries  are  neither  shaded  nor  are  they  subirrigated.  Sprinkling 
must  be  light;  if  there  were  no  sprinkling,  the  roots  would  go  too 
deep;  if  there  were  heavy  sprinkling,  too  much  foliage  would  de- 
velop. Continuous  cultivation  is  absolutely  essential.  The  nur- 
sery is  ploughed  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches;  the  manure  is  kept  at 
a  depth  of  three  inches. 

D.  White  Pine. 

White  Pine  seeds  cannot  be  kept  so  easily  over  winter  as  Yellow 
Pine  seeds.  The  seed  matures  at  Biltmore  about  September  15th, 
and  falls  at  once  after  maturing.  The  European  recipe,  "  to  gather 
the  seeds  when  drops  of  rosin  appear  on  the  cones,"  is  misleading. 
After  gathering,  the  cones  should  be  fully  matured  by  exposure  to 
sunlight.  Cones  placed  in  heavy  layers — over  six  inches — after 
gathering  are  apt  to  mould,  when  the  seeds  will  be  destroyed. 
White  Pine  cones  placed  in  light  layers  on  wire  netting  emit  the 
seeds  easily,  when  heat  is  applied,  and  when  the  cones  are  stirred 
several  times  a  day.      The  rooms  in  which  the  coning  takes  place 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

must  be  well  ventilated.  Seed  years  occur  in  tlie  Soutli  every  three 
years — in  the  Nortli,  say,  every  seven  years.  INIulching  before 
planting,  in  case  of  direct  seeding  in  spring,  is  absolutely  necessary. 
Germination  after  three  to  four  weeks;  seven  to  ten  cotyledons, 
primordial  leaves  singly.  Seedlings  suffer  still  more  from  fungi 
(honey  fungus)  than  Yellow  Pines.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of 
seeds  of  White  Pine,  the  seed  is  usually  planted  in  nurseries,  and 
not  in  the  woods.  At  Biltmore,  planting  of  seed  in  patches  with 
the  rake  without  preceding  preparation  of  soil,  under  light  cover, 
has  proven  a  failure.  White  Pine  does  well  on  abandoned  fields 
after  fires, — except  on  East  and  Southeast  slopes  where  flat-rooted 
plants  are  apt  to  be  lifted  by  frost.  Germinating  percentage  up  to 
90%.      Seeds  cost  about  $L50  per  pound.  • 

E.  Hemlock. 

Seeds  mature  toward  the  end  of  September,  are  very  small  and 
easily  removed.  Seedlings  are  very  shade  bearing  and  minute. 
Hemlock  cannot  be  grown  in  the  open.  Price  of  seed  being  high 
and  natural  regeneration  being  easy,  seed  plantations  will  not  be 
made  on  a  large  scale.  Price  of  seeds:  canadensis,  $3.50;  hete- 
rophylla,  $8.00;   mertensiana,  $5..50  per  pound. 

F.  Larch. 

The  cones  are  very  tough  and  not  easily  opened  by  heat.  It  is 
hard  to  separate  the  wing  from  the  seed.  The  germinating  per- 
centage is  low.  The  seed  is  planted  in  spring  on  open  ground, 
usually  in  patches,  mixed  with  Pines,  Spruces  or  Hardwoods.  The 
planting  of  seed  of  northern  Tamarack  in  northern  swamps  is  out 
of  the  question.  The  height  growth  in  early  youth  is  rapid. 
Larch  puts  heavy  demand  on  light.  Cotyledons,  five  to  seven  in 
number,  appear  four  weeks  after  planting.  The  seeds  are  mulched 
in  cold  water  for  at  least  a  week  before  planting.  The  primordial 
leaves  stand  singly;  brachyblasts  are  formed  from  the  third  sum- 
mer on.  Y'oung  shoots  never  show  brachyblasts.  Price  of  seeds: 
European  Larch,  50  cents  per  pound;  Japanese  Larch  (leptolepis) 
$2.50  per  pound. 

G.  Douglas  Fir. 

It  had  better  be  called  Pseudoabies  than  Pscudotsuga.  Cones 
are  ripe  in  October;  bracts  are  twice  as  long  as  scales;  seeds  fall 
immediately  after  maturing  in  fall.  Germinating  percentage  is  20 
to  30  per  cent.;  seed  received  from  dealers  is  apt  to  lie  over.  Thor- 
ough mulching  or  hot-house  treatment  (after  Weise)  increases  the 
percentage  and  the  rapidity  of  sprouting.  Germination  takes  place 
70 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

after  five  to  seven  weeks.     The  five  to  seven  cotyledons  are  pointed 
and  sliow  two  white  stripes  and  a  raised  midrib  above. 
Two  distinct  varieties  of  Douglas  Fir: 

a.  Pacific  Coast  Douglas  Fir,  growing  rapidly,  foliage  bluish, 
large  cones,  often  two  top  shoots  during  summer,  the  second  one 
usually  from  a  side  bud. 

b.  Rocky  Mountain  Douglas  Fir,  known  as  varietas  glauca, 
owing  to  its  grayish  foliage,  of  very  slow  growth,  greater  hardiness, 
smaller  cones,  developing  but  one  shoot  annually.  Price  of  seeds: 
$3.75  per  pound. 

H.  Lawson's   Cypress. 

Cones  blue  brown,  globular,  only  six  scaled,  Fmall,  three  seeds 
under  scale,  seeds  two  winged.  Wing  one-twenty-fifth  inch  wide. 
Seeds  mature  in  September  and  October,  falling  at  once.  150,000 
grains  per  pound.  Sprouting  Avith  two  cotyledons  only,  one-fifth  to 
one-third  inch  long.  Young  seedlings  stand  the  densest  shade,  nota- 
bly of  Alder.  In  the  sapling  stage,  fungi  seem  to  play  havoc  in  the 
plantations,  a  fact  which  may  explain  the  small  range  of  the  species. 
Seed  60  cents  per  pound. 

I.  "Western  Red  Cedar   (Thuja  plicata). 

Scales  of  cones  oval  and  upright,  covering  pairs  of  seeds.  Seeds 
two-winged;  wings  one-quarted  inch  long,  elliptical,  drawn  in  at  top. 
One  pound  contains  300,000  grains.  Two  cotyledons  only.  Seed- 
lings stand  heavy  shade.     Seed  costs  $2.25  per  pound. 


Paragraph  XVIII.    Actual  planting  of  seedlings: 
Introductory  remarks. 

A.  The  forester  uses  seedlings  one  to  ten  years  old  or, 
better  still,  one  to  five  years  old.  The  planting  expenses  increase 
at  a  cubic  ratio  with  the  increasing  weight  of  the  plants. 

B.  Seedlings  are  planted  either  with  or  without  "  balls  " 

of  dirt.  They  are  taken  from  the  nursery  or  from  the  woods. 
Yellow  Pines  over  three  years  must  be  planted  as  "  ball  plants." 
Ball  planting  is  always  safer,  as  it  prevents  a  loss  of  root  fibres. 
Under  any  circumstances,  it  is  wise  to  leave  some  dirt  attached  to 
the  roots,  preventing  the  roots  from  drying  and  allowing  them  to 
quickly  re-establish  their  sucking  contact  with  the  pores  of  the  soil. 

C.  The  small  stemlet  of  young  seedlings  might  be  cut  off 
before  planting  (stump  plants).     Advantages  of  planting  stumps: 

71 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

I.  In  case  of  Locust,  etc.,  lack  of  thorns. 

II.  In  case  of  tap  rooters  (Walnut,  Hickory,  Oaks  Avhere  loss  of 
root  fibre  is  great),  rapid  re-establishnient  of  the  equilibrium  pre- 
viously existing  between  water-sucking  power  and  evaporation. 

III.  Certainty  of  planting  the  seedlings  neither  deeper  nor 
higher  than  they  were  in  the  nursery. 

.  Conifers  cannot  be  stump  planted. 
If  stump  plants  of  Ash  or  Maple  are  to  be  used,  stumps  one  and 
one-half  to  two  inches  high  should  be  left.  In  the  ease  of  Oak,  the 
stemlet  should  be  cut  off  just  above  the  point  of  differentiation. 
Stumping  seems  practicable  in  the  case  of  Chestnut  as  well,  and  is 
often  applied  to  Catalpa,  Locust  and  Honey-Locust.  Stumping  is 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  rabbits  eating  the  new  shoots,  or 
where  weeds  are  rank. 

D.  Bunch  planting  is  often  practiced  where  very  small  seed- 
lings, cheaply  raised  and  not  transplanted  in  the  nursery,  are  there- 
after exposed  in  the  woods  to  atmospheric  hardships  or  to  damage 
by  animals.  From  two  to  thirty  seedlings  form  a  buncli  planted 
into  one  hole.  Bunch  planting,  although  losing  favor  with  the 
foresters  abroad,  is  applied  to  German  Spruce  and  Beech. 

E.  Plants  may  be  planted  irregularly  or  else  in  triangles, 
squares,  rectangles.  The  advantage  of  an  exact  geometrical  ar- 
rangement, which  may  be  obtained  with  the  help  of  long  planting 
strings,  bearing  blue  and  red  marks,  are: 

I.  Saving  of  time  and  expense.  Each  workman  is  kept  busy  by 
the  work  of  his  neighbor,  and  none  can  fall  behind.  Supervision  by 
rangers  is  facilitated. 

II.  The  number  of  plants  needed  is  easily  found  and  the  probable 
expense  is  more  accurately  estimated. 

III.  Small  seedlings  can  be  found  easily  thereafter  in  high  weeds 
or  grass. 

IV.  A  regular  plantation  may  be  opened  to  pasture  at  an 
earlier  date. 

V.  A  mixture  of  species,  and,  later,  underplanting  are  more 
readily  obtained. 

VI.  The  cleaning,  thinning  and  pruning  of  the  plantation  is 
facilitated. 

VII.  Possibility  of  cultivation  between  the  rows  in  prairies  and 
on  abandoned  fields. 

The    triangular    form   gives    at   a   given    planting   distance    the 
largest   number   of  plants   ]wr  acre,   distributes   the   growing   space 
equally,  and  is  therefore  said  to  raise  cleaner  stems.      The  arrange- 
72 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

nient  in  squares  allows  for  a  given  planting  distance  15%  less  plants 
per  acre  than  the  triangular  system. 

Tlie  rectangular  system,  though  scientifically  objectionable, 
practically  prevails  over  the  others.  The  plantlets  standing  close 
within  a  row  assist  one  another  from  early  times  on.  Planting 
between  the  rows  and  the  cultivation  of  slopes  are  facilitated  within 
rectangles.  It  is  said,  however,  that  the  saplings  form  large  side 
branches  and  retain  the  same  for  a  longer  period  of  years.  Rectan- 
gular plantations  are  known  to  suffer  less  from  snowbreak. 

F.  Usually  it  is  best  to  make  the  holes  for  the  plants  before 
planting,— unless,  on  clay  soil,  the  holes  are  apt  to  collect  water. 
The  making  of  holes  takes  more  time,  in  many  a  case,  than  the 
planting  itself.  It  should  not  be  done  during  the  few  spring  days 
favorable  to  tree  planting. 

G.  The  rangers  should  make  all  needful  preparations  for 
planting  several  days  or  weeks  before  planting,  securing  the  seed- 
lings, "  heeling  them  in "  close  to  the  plantation  and  getting  the 
implements  and  tools  in  proper  condition. 

No.  of  plants  No.  of  plants 

Planting  per  acre  in  per  acre  in 

distance.  squares.  triangles. 

1  foot  43,560  50,650 

2  foot 10,900  12,674 

3  foot 4.850  5,640 

4  foot  2,725  3,168 

5  foot 1,750  2,034 

6  foot ■ 1,210  1,407 


Paragraph  XIX.     Criteria  of  ^ood  seedlings. 

A.  The  root  system; 

The  root  system  should  be  as  compact  as  possible  and  as  rich 
in  fine  hair  fibres  as  possible,  qualities  which  are  obtained  in  a 
well-fertilized  nursery.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  small 
hair  fibres  are  the  feeders  of  seedlings,  and  that  the  stronger  roots 
act  merely  as  the  skeleton  giving  the  plant  a  firm  anchorage  in 
the  soil. 

A  short  exposure  to  sunlight  and  to  dry  winds  kills  the  root 
hairs.  Roots  cannot  live  in  air  any  better  than  fish,  though  requir- 
ing oxygen  like  fish  (compare  paragraph  XXII).  Toumey  claims 
that  "  many  successful  planters  never  set  evergreens  until  the  root 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

tips  sliow  signs  of  growth."  This  experience  is  entirely  at  variance 
Avith  the  universal  European  experience.  Conifers  are  very  sensitive 
against  loss  of  root  fibres.  Fresh  tips,  evidently,  are  most  apt  to 
be  injured  in  handling  or  by  drought. 

The  pruning  of  the  root  system  is  a  necessary  evil  in  the  case 
of  very  long  tap  roots.  Conifers  do  not  allow  of  it.  Badly  damaged 
roots  may  be  clipped  with  a  sharp  knife  just  above  the  damaged 
point. 

B.  The  shaftlet:  Crooks  are  not  injurious,  the  plant  healing 
them  quickly.  Slender  plants  are  not  desirable,  partly  because  they 
sway  badly  in  the  wind,  thus  getting  loose  in  the  soil;  partly 
because  slender  shafts  are  due  to  an  excessively  close  position  in 
the  nurseries.  In  the  case  of  broad-leaved  seedlings  one  or  two 
years  old  the  siiaft  of  spindling  specimens  may  be  cut-off  without 
lasting  injury   (not  in  conifers).  " 

C.  The  buds:  The  buds  must  have  a  healthy  color,  a  large  size 
and  a  goodly  number.  Small  buds  prove  the  plant  to  be  weak;  so 
that  it  has  a  poor  chance  to  withstand  the  hardships  of  transplant- 
ing. In  conifers,  the  condition  of  the  buds  is  especially  telling. 
Poor  and  few  buds  in  hardwoods  render  it  advisable  ito  lop  the 
stemlets. 


Paragraph  XX.     A^e,  size  and  number  of  seed' 
lin^s  used. 

A.  Young  plants  are  more  easily  transplanted  than  old 
plants,  the  loss  of  roots  being  smaller.  Large  saplings  (10  feet  liigh 
to  4  inches  in  diameter)  are  transplanted  at  great  expense  and  great 
risk.      They  must  be  transplanted  with  big  balls  of  dirt  attached. 

B.  The  number  of  plants  used  in  Europe  varies  between 
1,000  and  40,000  specimens  per  acre  in  case  of  Pines,  Spruces  and 
Beeches.      The  advantage  of  a  large  number  of  small  plants  is: 

I.  Better  chance  for  nature  to  select  the  fittest. 

II.  Less  reinforcing  required. 

III.  Even  unexperienced  planters  can  be  used. 

IV.  Plant  material  is  very  cheap. 

V.  Larger  returns  from  first  thinning  and  clearer  boles. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  advantage  of  planting  stronger  seedlings, 
especially  transplants  three  to  six  years  old,  lies  in  the  following 
points: 

VI.  On  poor  soil,  strong  plants  liave  a  better  cliance. 

VII.  Older  plants  have  already  overcome  tlie  '•  measles "  of 
childhood   ( — fungi,  insect  diseases — )   to  a  large  extent. 

74 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

VIII.  Such  plantations  suffer  less  from  snowbreak. 

IX.  The  rotation  is  shortened  by  a  number  of  years.  In  a 
White  Pine  plantation  made  with  seedlings  seven  years  old,  instead 
of  seedlings  two  years  old,  the  rotation  is  reduced  from  fifty  to 
forty-five  years;  and  the  original  cost  of  planting  may  be  27% 
higher,  figuring  at  5%  interest;  22%  higher,  figuring  at  4%  interest; 
13%  higher,  figuring  at  3%  interest. 

C.  Generally     speaking,      Oak,     Hickory     and      Walnut 

should  be  planted  one  year  old  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  the 
tap  roots.  Spruce,  Fir  and  Hemlock  should  be  planted  three  to  five 
years  old,  after  previous  transplanting  in  the  nursery.  Ash  should 
be  planted  six  years  old  when  used  in  moist  sites  having  a  luxurious 
growth  of  weeds.  Yellow  Pine  must  always  be  planted  one  or  two 
years  old,  unless  ball  planting  is  resoi'ted  to. 

.After  Toumey:  For  the  prairies,  yearlings  are  best  in  case  ot" 
Cottonwoods,  Box  Elder,  Soft  Maple  (Soft  Maple  sprouts  in  June 
and  is  very  small  in  fall),  Russian  Mulberry,  Catalpa,  Walnut,  Black 
Cherry,  Locust  and  Honey-Locust.  At  Biltmore,  Black  Cherry  ti'aus- 
plants  three  years  old  do  very  well.  Locusts  two  years  old  are 
clipped  back.  Maple  and  Ash  are  transplanted  and  used  three  to 
four  years  old;  Yellow  Pines  used  one  or  two  years  old;  White 
Pines  two,  three  or  four  years  old;   Catalpa  one  year  old,  etc. 


Paragraph  XXI.    Lifting  seedlings  from  nursery 
beds. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  plow  the  seedlings  out  of  the  ground  or 
to  tear  them  out  with  tongs.  In  the  case  of  species  having  small 
reproductive  power  (Conifers,  Beech,  Birch)  additional  care  is 
needed.  The  spade  should  be  used;  and  the  plant  should  be  lifted 
together  with  large  clumps  of  dirt  which,  thrown  on  the  ground, 
collapse  and  allow  of  the  safe  extrication  of  the  plants  contained  in 
the  clumps. 

It  is  Avise,  carriage  charges  permitting,  to  allow  some  dirt  to 
stick  to  the  roots.  On  more  binding  soil  the  hollow  cylinder  spade 
might  be  used  for  lifting  small  plants.  Plants  should  be  well  cov- 
ered with  burlaps,  wet  moss,  dirt,  etc.,  at  once  after  digging.  Plants 
left  unearthed  for  a  number  of  days  should  be  heeled-in-  thoroughly, 
shinglelike,  one  row  covering  the  other,  in  a  shady  place. 

A  machine  lifting  the  seedling  from  (sandy)  nursery  beds  se- 
curely, row  by  row,  is  used  in  the  state  nurseries  of  Hessen.  It  is 
constructed  bv  Forstwart  Laudenburcer. 


AMERICAX    SYLVICULTURE 
Paragraph  XXII.     Transportation  of   seedlings. 

If  tlie  roots  are  thorouglily  protected,  a  voyage  from  Europe  to 
Biltmore,  though  it  may  take  six  weeks,  will  not  injure  the  plants. 
Plants  are  loosely  put  together  in  bunches  of  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred,  are  placed  in  baskets  or  open  crates,  the  roots  in  the 
center,  the  tips  at  the  circumference.  Layers  of  plants  alternate 
with  layers  of  damp  moss.  Seedlings  packed  tightly,  especially  in 
boxes,  are  apt  to  mould. 

Plants  merely  taken  to  a  nearby  plantation  on  wagons  should 
be  well  covered  Avith  branches,  moss  or  sacks,  and  should  be 
sprinkled  during  transportation.  Ball  plants  do  not  need  packing 
unless  balls  are  very  loose,  when  burlaps  are  neciessary.  One  hun- 
dred Yellow  Pine  ball  plants,  with  balls  ten  inches  square,  make 
up  a  two-horse  load.  Fifty  thousand  seedlings  without  balls  and 
well  watered,  or  eighty  thousand  seedlings  slightly  dampened, 
usually  make  a  wagon  load. 

Under  adverse  climatic  conditions,  the  use  of  plants  planted  in 
minute  paper  bags — like  those  used  in  raising  Eucalypts — is  highly 
advisable. 

Experiments  made  at  Biltmore  with  one-year  White  Pine  seed- 
lings are  to  the  effect  that  seedlings  having  the  roots  exposed  to 
air  and  wind 

for  10  minutes,  had  a  death  rate  of  5% 
for  20  minutes,  had  a  death  rate  of  10% 
for  30  minutes,  had  a  death  rate  of  70% 
for  45  minutes,  had  a  death  rate  of  90% 
for  60  minutes,  had  a  death  rate  of  100% 

The  experiments  prove  that  the  utmost  care  is  necessary,  under 
adverse  co'^iditions,  to  preserve  the  vitality  of  the  roots  during  the 
act   of  transportation. 


Paragraph  XXIII.  Common   methods   of   plant- 
ing seedlings. 

A.  Planting  in  furrows. 

The  furrows  should  be  made  deeply  with  a  sub  soil  plow.  Tiie 
plants  are  distributed,  at  proper  distances  in  the  furrows.  Then 
another  furrow  is  at  once  given  with  a  turning  plow,  throwing  the 
needed  dirt  over  the  plants,  which  are  tliereafter  adjusted  by  hand 
and  pressed  into  proper  position. 

This  is  a  quick  method  of  planting,  but  is  practical  only  on 
76 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

prairies  or  on  abandoned  fields.  It  involves  the  danger  of  reckless, 
spreading  of  roots  and  of  loose  imbedding  of  the  plant  in  loose  soil. 
The  plants  are  also  apt  to  be  placed  too  deep  and  to  be  shaken 
badly  by  wind.    The  method,  however,  yields  good  results  in  case  of 

I.  Stump  planting   (Oak,  Locust,  Catalpa). 

II.  Planting  many  one-year-old  seedlings  (so  that  a  large  per- 
centage might  be  lost  without  great  damage  in  the  end). 

III.  Plants  not  injured  by  deep  planting  (not  for  White  Pine 
and  Spruce).  Plants  placed  too  deep  form  a  second  root  system 
close  to  the  surface  and  develop  a  bushy  bole,  useless  in  forestry,, 
pleasing  in  a  garden. 

At  Biltmore,  the  furrow  method  was  used  by  Pinchot  at  the 
Shiloh  Crossing  plantation.  A  modification  of  the  furrow  method 
was  used  at  the  Rice  farm  in  1903,  where  deep  furrows  were  drawn,, 
the  plants  inserted  by  hand,  covered  by  hand  and  adjusted  by 
hand.  A  planting  machine  (Dr.  Fernow's  and  Rodman's),  resembling^ 
a  tobacco  planting  machine,  is  not  used. 

B.  Planting  in  holes.  The  holes  are  either  holes  dug  with  the 
spade,  or  clefts  wedged  into  the  soil.  Most  planters  mulch  the  roots 
in  loamy  water  so  as  to  increase  their  weight  and  so  as  to  reduce 
their  spread  before  insertion  into  the  hole.  The  root  fibres  suflfer 
from  this  mulching,  however,  being  braided  unnaturally.  The  root 
tips  should  not  be  bent  upward.  The  depth  and  width  of  the  hole 
should  correspond  with  the  actual  size  of  the  root.  Several  plants 
might  be  placed  in  the  same  hole  to  save  expense.  Theoretically  it 
is  best  to  place  each  plant  in  the  center  of  its  hole.  At  Biltmore, 
however,  planting  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  hole  is  preferred  because : 

I.  No  root  is  bilaterally  developed. 

II.  Planting  at  the  edge  is  the  best  preventive  against  deep 
planting,  the  planter  holding  the  plant  with  the  left  hand  at  the 
point  of  differentiation  against  the  edge  of  the  hole,  when  drawing: 
with  the  right  hand  the  dirt  required  to  fill  the  hole. 

III.  Such  plants  are  firmly  imbedded  and  are  less  shaken  by  the^ 
wind. 

On  forest  soil  it  is  wise  to  place  the  top  dirt  dug  from  the 
hole  around  the  root  tips,  and  the  bottom  dirt  of  the  hole  close  to 
the  surface.  The  workmen  should  be  shown  daily  by  the  forester 
how  to  plant.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  pulverize  and 
loosen  the  dirt  first,  and  to  then  press  and  beat  it  tightly  with  fist,. 
heel  or  mallet  around  the  roots.  Some  planters  give  a  trifle  of 
forest  humus  into  the  hole;  others  carry  fertile  garden  dirt  in 
baskets  to  the  plantations.  The  placing  of  stones  on  the  hole  (as. 
77 


a:\ierican  sylviculture 

refrigerators)    is    recommended.     One   man's   work   at   hole   digging 
per  day  is  300  to  3,000  according  to  root-size  and  conditions  of  soil. 

C.  Tlie  seedling  must   stand,  after  planting: 

I.  Firmly,  the  dirt  being  tiglitly  packed  around  its  roots,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  shaken  and  so  that  the  roots  may  establish  their 
sucking  contacts. 

II.  Naturally,  the  roots  retaining  the  same  manner  of  spi'eading 
and  ramifying  which  they  had  in  the  nursery. 

III.  Erect  and  just  as  deep  as  it  stood  in  the  nursery  (excep- 
tion:  barren  sand). 


Paragraph  XXIV.     Special    methods   and   tools 
used  for  planting  seedlings. 

A.  Biermans  spiral  spade,  costing  $2.00,  is  pointed  para- 
ibolically,  the  blade  being  7V2  inches  long  and  5  inches  wide.     When 

used  boringly,  this  spade  forms  a  parabolic  hole  and  loosens  the 
soil.  With  the  left  hand  the  seedling  is  pressed  against  the  side  of 
the  hole,  while  the  right  hand  places  some  sod  ashes  (See  Par. 
JiXIX,  D.  VI.)  immediately  over  the  fine  root  fibres.  Then  the  best 
part  of  the  soil  is  used  to  fill  the  near  half  of  the  hole,  and  the 
poorest  for  filling  the  far  half.  The  instrument  is  adapted  to  hard- 
ened soil.  On  wet  and  binding  soil,  the  dirt  clogs  in  the  curves  of 
the  spade.     Capacity  per  hand  per  day  in  Germany  320  plants. 

B.  The  Planting  Dagger  is  used  for  Yellow  Pine  seedlings 
one  or  two  years  old,  to  be  planted  on  sandy  soil.  The  dagger  is 
three  inches  longer  than  the  longest  root.  It  is  made  of  wood,  iron 
shod  at  the  point.    It  makes  a  narrow,  funnel-shaped  hole,  which  is 

■  closed  by  pressure  from  another  hole  made  a  few  inches  from  the 
first.  On  loose,  sandy  soil  it  is  wise  to  plant  Yellow  Pine  seedlings 
deeply — up  to  first  needles — since  \ellow  Pine  is  not  aff"ected,  in 
that  soil,  by  deep  planting.  Daggering  is  the  cheapest  possible 
method  for  planting  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Jack  Pine,  Lodgepole  Pine,  etc. 
■Capacity  800  to  900  per  day  and  hand. 

C.  The  Buttlar  Iron,  one  much  used  for  thrusting  holes  into 
the  soil,  is  now  in  disfavor  since  it  causes  the  seedlings  to  be 
inserted  into  holes  having  walls  as  impenetrable  as  those  of  a 
flowerpot.  Only  plants  one  or  two  years  old  can  be  thus  planted 
4''  cleft  planted  "). 

78 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

D.  The  Wartenberg  Iron  consists  of  a  sword  IS  inches  long, 
attached  to  a  heavy  handle.  Price  $2.25.  Similar  irons  Avere  made 
at  Biltmore  out  of  three-inch  wagon  tire,  at  a  small  cost.  A  deep 
cleft  is  made  by  the  iron  in  wliich  tap-rooted  seedlings  are  readily 
inserted.  On  binding  soil,  however,  or  in  a  broonisedge  field,  the  use 
of  this  iron  cannot  be  recommended. 

E.  The  planting  hammer  is  used  to  make  small  holes  for 
small  roots.  The  iron  part  of  the  hammer  is  about  five  inches  long. 
The  planting  hatchet,  a  similar  make,  may  be  used  to  advantage  for 
planting  one-year-old  plants.  The  holes  are  closed  by  beating  the 
dirt  round  the  holes  with  the  back  of  the  hammer  or  with  the 
hatchet. 

F.  Von  Alemann  constructed  a  very  heavy  square  spade  which 
is  pushed  and  drawn  in  a  particular  way,  like  the  lever  of  a  hand- 
car on  the  railroads,  so  as  to  make  the  lower  part  of  the  hole  wider 
than  the  middle  part,  the  cross-section  of  the  hole  forming  an  X. 
If  Oaks  are  planted,  an  extra  hole  is  made  at  the  bottom  of  that 
made  with  the  spade,  by  means  of  a  long  dagger  in  which  the  tap 
root  of  the  oak  is  to  be  imbedded.  The  hole  is  closed  by  pressure 
from  above.  It  seems  doubtful  whether  the  soil  will  close  entirely 
over  the  roots  unless  it  be  sandy.  One  man  plants  580  Oaks  two 
years  old  or  1,270  Yellow  Pines  two  years  old  with  this  instrument 
on  plowed  ground. 

G.  The  Planting  Beak,  constructed  by  Earth,  makes  and 
empties  a  triangular  hole,  removing  the  dirt  filling  the  hole.  Plants 
one  or  two  years  old  are  placed  along  the  vertical  side  of  the  hole. 
Then  the  dirt  kept  in  the  beak  is  filled  in.  The  instrument  is  SVs 
feet  long  and  weighs  15  pounds.  It  is  said  to  be  superior  to  all 
cleft  planting  tools,  whilst  it  works  just  as  cheaply  on  loose  soil. 

H.  Planting  under  sod  cover.  (Von  Alemann).  Two  sods 
are  turned  over,  like  the  covers  of  books,  and  laid  back,  upside 
down,  without  loosening  the  "  hinge  "  of  the  sods.  The  soil  in  the 
hole  is  deeply  worked  with  a  spade.  In  the  middle  of  the  hole  the 
plant  is  placed,  with  the  roots  spread  as  much  as  possible  within  the 
entire  Iiole.  Then  the  two  sods  are  turned  back  into  their  original 
position,  so  that  the  seedling  stands  between  them.  This  is  a  good 
method  on  ground  where  frost  is  to  be  dreaded,  and  is  used  for 
Ash,  Alder  and  Water  Birch  one  to  three  years  old. 

I.  Mound  Planting  (Manteuffel).     Small  mounds  are  made 
consisting    of    rich    nursery    soil    to    be    carried   in   baskets    to    the 
plantations.     The  plant  is  placed  into  the  mound,  its  roots  touching 
79 


A  :M  E  R  I  C  A  N     SYLVICULTURE 

the  vegetable  mould  underneath.  The  mound  is  covered  with  sods 
to  prevent  erosion.  The  method  Morks  well  on  very  dry  and  hard 
ground.  About  100  i)lants  are  planted  per  day  and  per  man  after 
this  method.     Its  advantages  are: 

I.  The  vegetable  cover  of  the  soil,  by  its  disintegration,  fur- 
nishes food  for  the  rootlets. 

II.  The  quality  of  the  soil  surounding  the  roots  is  very  good. 

III.  The  soil  in  the  mounds  is  kept  moist  with  condensed 
atmospheric  vapor,  owing  to  its  greater  porosity. 

IV.  The  planter  is  not  likely  to  plant  the  seedling  too  deep. 
The  method  is  also  applied  on  very  wet  soil.     The  mounds  may 

be  replaced  by  ridges.  Experiments  have  shown  that  planting  in 
mounds  does  better  in  years  of  drought  than  planting  in  holes. 

Modifications  of  the  Manteuffel  method  are  in  common  use. 
Ordinary  soil  dug  out  at  the  planting  site  may  be  used  to  make  the 
mound;  or,  where  there  are  heavy  sods,  a  sod  is  turned  upside  down 
and  left  to  rot  for  a  year.  The  mound  thus  made  is  rich  in  plant 
food  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  root  fibres  and  vegetable 
matter. 

Disadvantages  of  mound  planting  are: 

a.  The  mounds  are  easily  washed  away  on  slopes  unless  under 
cover  of  mother  trees. 

b.  The  best  soil  is  washed  out  if  the  mound  is  not  covered  with 
sods,  stones  or  brush. 

c.  Insects  and  mice  find  hiding  and  breeding  places  in  the  sod- 
covered  mounds. 

d.  Mound  planting  is  very  expensive. 

J.  Ballplanting,  with  Charles  Heyer's  hollow  cylinder 
spade. 

The  cylinder  spade  can  be  used  to  best  advantage  on  binding 
soil.  It  lifts  the  plant  (seedlings,  notably  conifers  one  or  two  years 
old)  from  the  nursery  Avithout  loss  of  roots  and  prepares  for  it  a 
hole  on  the  ground  to  be  planted  having  the  exact  form  of  the  ball 
of  dirt  adhering  to  the  roots. 

The  method  is  particularly  safe  and  seems  particularly  adapted 
for  prairie  planting  since  it  protects  the  seedling  before,  during  and 
after  the  act  of  planting;  since  it  prevents  the  seedling  from  loosing 
its  foothold  in  the  soil  under  the  influence  of  high  winds;  since  it 
allows  of  planting  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year. 

On  stony  soil,  the  cylinder  spade  cannot  be  used.  Edward 
Heyer's  "  cone  spade "  facilitates  the  transfer  of  larger  seedlings 
with  heavier  balls  of  dirt  from  the  nursery  or  from  the  woods  to 
new  plantations. 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Paragraph  XXV.   Season  for  planting  seedlings. 

Factors  influencing  the  season  are: 

Local  climate.  '  I 

Labor  available. 

Time  available. 

Species  planted. 

Theoretically,  seedlings  sliould  be  planted  during  the  period  of 
inactivity  of  roots  and  buds,  or  in  mid-winter.  This  theoretical 
demand,  however,  in  a  Northern  climate,  cannot  be  carried  out,  the 
ground  being  frozen  at  that  time.  Hence  the  choice  remains 
between  planting  in  late  fall  and  planting  in  early  spring.  After 
Engler,  roots  show  two  periods  of  active  growth,  viz.:  a  spring-and- 
summer  period  influenced  by  soil  moisture,  and  a  fall  period  in- 
fluenced by  soil  heat.  The  growth  of  the  roots  during  August  and 
September,  between  the  two  periods  mentioned,  is  very  weak. 

In  spring,  the  growth  of  the  roots  starts  in  March  and  April 
and  shows  the  highest  activity  in  May,  June  and  July. 

A.  Spring  Planting. 

The  seedlings  are  planted  before  the  opening  of  the  buds.  The 
moisture  left  in  the  soil  by  the  melting  snow  is  very  favorable  to 
their  growth.     Objections  to  spring  planting  are: 

I.  Scarcity  of  labor,  unless  forest  planting  begins  at  a  time  at 
which  fields  are  too  wet  to  be  worked. 

II.  Larch,  Maple,  Cherry,  Tulip  tree  and  Birch  sprout  so  early  in 
spring  that  it  is  impossible  to  adopt  spring  planting  in  their  case. 

III.  Moist  ground,  hummocks  and  swamps  are  not  accessible  in 
spring. 

rV.  The  soil  is  not  packed  as  tightly  around  the  roots  on  the 
arrival  of  spring  as  is  the  case  in  fall  planting. 

B.  Fall  Planting. 

Fall  planting  is  preferred  on  wet  areas  and  in  the  case  of  early 
sprouting  species.  The  disadvantages  of  fall  planting  otherwise 
outweigh  the  benefits  combined  therewith. 

I.  Seedlings  planted  in  fall  are  apt  to  be  heaved  up  by  the 
winter's  freeze. 

II.  The  severe  winds  of  the  winter  loosen  the  foothold  of  coni- 
fers planted  in  fall. 

III.  Fall-planted  seedlings  are  more  subject  to  late  frost,  open- 
ing their  buds  some  ten  days  earlier  than  spring-planted  seedlings. 

IV.  On  weedy  soil,  fall-planting  is  handicapped  by  the  presence 
of  a  rank  growth  of  weeds  which  has  rotted  down  at  the  arrival  of 
spring.  81 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

In  the  Southern  states,  even  at  Biltmore,  planting  in  January 
and  February  is  very  feasible,  perhaps  advisable  in  average  years. 

Ball  plants  can  be  planted  at  any  season  of  the   year. 

In  countries  of  periodical  rainfall  (California,  Oregon,  India  and 
Porto  Rico)  it  is  best  to  plant  just  before  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season. 

In  swamps,  summer  planting  or  early  fall  planting  is  a 
necessitv. 


Paragraph  XXVI.     Cultivation  of  plantations. 

A.  Practice:  The  European  forester  cultivates  his  planta- 
tions but  rarely  for  the  reason  that  his  plantations  are  made 
immediately  after  lumbering,  when  the  rootwork  and  the  stumps 
on  the  ground  render  cultivation  difficult.  Under  the  prevailing 
conditions  of  soil  (humus,  porosity),  cultivation  is  usually  not 
required  for  the  success  of  a  plantation.  Irregular  plantations  can- 
not be  cultivated. 

The  forester  afforesting  sand  lands  obviously  objects  to 
cultivation. 

The  forester  afforesting  swamps  finds  cultivation  impracticable. 

B.  Advisability:      Cultivation    is    advisable: 

^"Nniere  there  is  neither  humus  nor  rootwork  in  the  ground; 

"S^Hiere  the  soil,  like  prairie  soil,  is  compact  and  hard,  lacking  in 
aeration,  porosity,  capillary  power,  hygroscopicity ; 

Where  competing  herbaceous  weeds  threaten  to  smother  small 
seedlings ; 

Where  mice  or  soil  breeding  insects  prevail,  which  are  disturbed, 
exposed  or  killed  by  continuous  cultivation. 

C.  Frequency. 

The  forester  may  cultivate  \ip  to  three  times  per  annum,  during 
one,  two  or  more  years — sometimes  till  the  leaf  canopy  overliead 
secures  for  the  soil  a  solid  layer  of  humus  by  dense  shading. 

D.  Tools. 

A  bull-tongue  plow  is  used,  on  rougli  ground,  for  plant  rows 
placed  less  than  three  feet  apart. 

Cultivators  are  used,  as  in  agriculture,  where  the  soil  is  loose, 
and  where  the  rows  are  far  enough  ajiart  and  the  ground  is  free 
from  stumps  or  roots  or  boulders. 

Hoes  are  used,  where  but  a  plant  here  and  there  requires  culti- 

82 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

vation,  where  labor  is  cheap  and  where  the  soil  does  not  allow  of 
using  teams  and  machinery. 

Mules  and  horses  are  muezled  to  protect  broad-leaved  seedlings 
from  being  browsed. 


Paragraph  XXVII.  Prairie  planting  in  particular. 

A.  The  prairie  exhibits   climatic  differences  as  marked 

as  those  prevailing  between  the  State  of  Georgia  and  the  District  of 
Labrador. 

"General  prescriptions  for  prairie  planting"  are  impossible, 
owing  to  these  climatic  diversities. 

B.  The  species  used  must  he  adapted  to  the  quality  of  the 
soil,  the  intensity  of  summer  heat,  tlie  duration  of  the  summer,  the 

soil  moisture,  the  air  moisture.     Native   trees  should  be  given  the 
preference   in   case   of   doubt. 

C.  Prairie  plantations  are  meant  either  for  production  of 
farm  timber  (ties,  posts,  etc.),  or  for  shelter  to  stock,  house, 
orchard  and  field. 

D.  Species  recommended  for  prairie  planting   are: 

I.  For  Canada: 

White  Spruce,  Cottonwood,  Balm  of  Gilead,  Box-elder,  Green 
Ash,  Russian  Poplar;    further  Yellow  Pines. 

II.  For  Minnesota  and  Dakota: 

Cottonwoods,  Soft  Maples,  Willows,  Ashes,  Box-elder,  Tama- 
rack in  swamps,  Bur  Oak  along  rivers. 

III.  For  Nebraska   and   Iowa: 

The  same  species  and  Red  Cedar,  Russian  Mulberry. 

IV.  For  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma  and  Missouri: 

Osage  Orange,  Black  Locust,  Hardy  Catalpa,  Post  Oak  and 
White  Oak. 

E.  Naturally  we  should  expect  the  Xerophytic  species, 
like  Yellow  Pines,  to  do  best  in  the  prairies,  and  the  old  stumps  found 
buried  in  the  groimd  bear  testimony  to  their  possibilities.  Being 
evergreen,  the  Pines  protect  the  farmers  best  from  blizzards.  Still, 
just  Pines  are  most  apt  to  meet  with  distress  previous  and  after 
the  act  of  planting.  Ball. planting  should  be  tried.  The  European 
Pinus  montana  resists  wind  particularly  well. 

F.  Preparation  of  soil:  It  is  best  to  prepare  the  soil  thor- 
ouglily    by    several    years'    field    crops.      Deep    plowing    is    required 

S.3 


A]\IERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

(Tourney)    in    the   fall   previous    to   planting   and  in   the   spring   of 
planting. 

G.  Treatment  of  plants:  The  seedlings  arriving  at  the  farm 
should  be  removed  from  the  package;  heeled  in  under  shade,  pro- 
tected from  winds  and  sprinkled  if  frost  is  not  to  be  feared. 
Tourney  wishes  to  puddle  plants  before  heeling,  and  desires  to  plant 
the  conifers   invariably  after  the  broad-leaved  kinds. 

H.  Planting:  The  planter  must  wait  patiently  for  proper 
weather.  Thorough  protection  of  the  roots  during  every  moment 
of  the  act  of  planting  is  essential.  Each  individual  must  be  planted 
by  itself, — no  dozen  methods!  The  plants  should  be  set  closely 
within  the  rows;  the  soil  must  be  packed  tightly  around  the  roots. 
Reversed  sods  or  stones  may  be  used  to  ballast  the  roots  and  to 
prevent  the  wind  from  shaking  them  loose. 

I.  Cultivation:  Cultivation  is  necessary  up  to  the  time  wlien 
the  trees  cover  the  ground  fully,  littering  it  with  humus.  Where 
barefrost  is  dreaded,  cultivation  should  end  in  late  summer. 


Paragraph  XXVIII.    Methods  of  obtaining  plants 
for  planting. 

A.  Seedlings    are    obtained   frequently   from    the   ivoods 

nearby,  a  method  which  seems  to  recommend  itself  as  cheap  and 
natural.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  roots  and  the  buds  of  ■v\ild 
seedlings  are  badly  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  planting.  The 
former  are  far-spreading;  the  buds  are  weak  and  few.  In  addition 
it  is  risky  to  take  plants  from  the  shelter  of  mother  trees  suddenly 
onto  open  ground.  The  use  of  wild  seedlings  over  two  years  old 
is  particularly  unsuccessful.  The  failure  of  the  timber  culture 
act  to  prove  efiicient  is  largely  due  to  the  use  of  wild  plants  in 
prairie  plantations. 

At  Biltmore,  seedlings  of  Yellow  Poplar,  Yellow  Pine,  Ash  and 
Maple  are  often  picked  up  in  the  woods,  on  logging  roads,  with  a 
spade  and  removed  to  the  nurseries.  Such  seedlings  are  taken  at  a 
very  young  age,  without  loss  of  dirt,  to  nurseries  placed  under  lath 
screens.  They  are  never  removed  directly  to  open  plantations, 
with  the  exception  of  ballplants  of  Yellow  Pine. 

B.  Purchase  of  plants  from  commercial  nurseries; 

During    the    last    twenty-five    years,    a    number    of    financially 
strong  commerical  nurseries  have  arisen  abroad  which,  buying  seed 
84 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

cheaply,  located  on  suitable  ground  at  good  shipping  points,  enjoy- 
ing many  years'  close  acquaintance  with  the  needs  of  Sylviculture, 
have  supplied  the  various  German  forest  administrations  with  cheap 
plants  of  a  superior  grade.  The  Biltmore  Estate  has  often  obtained 
plants  raised  by  Heins  Sons,  Halstenbeek,  near  Hamburg,  notably 
Wliite  Pines,  which  have  been  very  successful  in  spite  of  a  six- 
weeks'  voyage.  On  the  other  hand,  American  tree  nurseries  usually 
prepare  plants  but  for  ornamental  purposes  and  not  with  a  view  of 
fostering  the  development  of  the  tree  bole. 

Since  the  rangers  and  the  helpers  in  forest  planting  should 
know  the  sylvicultural  needs  of  the  seedlings,  it  is  surely  wise  to 
offer  them  object  lessons  at  home  through  self-administered 
nurseries. 

C.  Nurseries  proper,   in   charge   of   the  ranger. 

Where  mice  ai-e  much  feared  the  niu'series  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep,  straight- walled  ditch.  Fences  are  made  of 
wire,  lath,  rails,  etc.,  differing  in  material,  strength,  height  and 
fineness  of  mesh  according  to  the  enemies  locally  dreaded. 

Proper  nurseries  yield  the  largest  percentage  of  seedlings  from 
a  given  quantity  of  seeds.  The  seedlings  raised  therein  have  a 
better,  more  compact  and  more  fibrous  root  system  than  wild  plants. 
Expensive  and  exacting  species  should  always  be  raised  in  "  forest 
gardens." 

There  may  be  distinguished: 

Nurseries  under  tree  cover. 

Shifting  nurseries. 

Permanent  nurseries. 

I.. Nurseries  under  tree  cover  form  the  exception,  being  required 
only  for  the  production  of  seedlings  of  tender  species;  notably  of 
Hemlock,  Hard  Maple,  Beech.  The  nursery  is  formed  by  a  pole- 
wood  heavily  thinned  and  dug  over  with  the  spade.  Here  Beech- 
nuts are  planted  broadcast  or  in  furrows  and  the  seedlings  removed 
■when  two  years  old,  without  transplanting.  Hard  Maple  and  Hem- 
lock should  be  raised  as  in  open  nurseries. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  broad-leaved  kinds  often  thrive 
best  under  conifers  (Oak  and  Beech  under  Pine)  and  conifers  best 
under  broad-leafed  kinds  (Spruce  best  under  Beech,  Maple,  Birch). 
None  but  theoretical  explanations  can  be  given  for  this  observation, 
the  best  explanation  being  the  difference  in  the  enemies  attacking 
such  species. 

Objections  to  nurseries  under  tree  cover: 

a.  Soil  preparation  is  costly  and  insufficient. 
85 


A  il  E  R  I  C  A  X    SYLVICULTURE 

b.  Plants  raised  cannot  be  planted  in  the  open  without  loss. 

c.  Nurseries  under  tree  cover  suffer  badly  from  mice  and 
squirrels  and  obtain  insufficient  rainfall.  On  the  other  hand,  weeds 
and  grasses  are  kept  down  by  the  shelter  overhead. 

Nurseries  under  tree  cover  form  the  exception,  not  tlie  rule. 

II.. Shifting  versus  stationary  nurseries. 

The  advantages  of  stationary  forest  nurseries  over  shifting 
forest  nurseries  are: 

a.  Reduced  cost  of  tilling. 

b.  Reduced  cost  of  fencing. 

c.  Reduced  cost  of  supervision. 

On  the  other  hand,  stationary  nurseries  suffer  from: 
L  Excess  of  weeds. 

2.  Higher  cost  of  transportation  of  seedlings. 

3.  Large  needs  of  artificial  fertilizing. 

4.  Danger  from  mice,  insects  and  fungi  for  which  siich  nurseries 
act  as  incubators. 

For  raising  ball  plants,  the  shifting  nursery  is  imdoubtedly 
best;  otherwise  the  selection  between  shifting  and  permanent  nurs- 
eries depends  on  local  conditions,  such  as  the  price  of  manure 
and  of  fencing,  charges  for  transportation,  etc.  Seed  plantations 
made  on  open  ground  are  often  used  as  shifting  nurseries — especially 
so  in  the  case  of  Yellow  Pines. 


Paragraph  XXIX.    Permanent  nurseries  in  par- 
ticular. 

A.  Tlie  size  of  "forest  gardens"  (the  German  word  for 
permanent  nurseries)  depends  upon  the  quantity,  the  age  and  the 
size  of  the  seedlings  annually  needed;  further,  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  transplanting  beds,  fallow  beds  and  paths  between  the 
beds.  A  regular  forest  management  employs  forest  gardens  fitted 
with: 

I.  Transplanting  beds,  their  total  size  being  equal  to  trans- 
planting space  by  number  of  plants  yearly  needed  by  number  of 
years  which  the  transplants  are  left  in  such  beds. 

II.  Seed-beds,  their  total  size  being  equal  to  one-fourth  of  size 
of  transplanting  beds  for  one  age  class  by  number  of  years  which 
the  seedlings  are  allowed  to  stand  untransplanted. 

III.  Foot  paths  and  roads  equaling  30%  of  I  and  II. 

IV.  Fallow   beds   equaling   100%   of  I,   II,   and   III,   if   seedlings 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

and   transplants   are   left   for    one   j'ear   in   their   beds;    50%    of   I, 
II  and  III,  if  left  for  two  years;  and  33%,  if  left  for  three  years. 

B.  Form  of  beds.  Beds  are  usually  four  to  six  feet  wide, 
separated  by  paths  one  or  two  feet  wide,  the  beds  preferably  ele- 
vated over  the  paths  by  from  three  to  twelve  inches,  so  as  to 
check  the  migration  of  insects,  mice  and  moles;  and  so  as  to  allow 
of  better  aeration  of  the  soil.  Sometimes  the  beds  are  kept  in 
board  frames,  an  expensive  though  useful  arrangement. 

C.  In  selecting  the  site  of  a  nursery  the  following  factors 
must  be  considered: 

I.  Soil:  A  sandy  loam  or  marl  is  best  for  seedlings.  The 
correct  degree  of  looseness  is  secured  by  mixing  sawdust,  spent  tan, 
humus,  ashes  and  weeds  with  the  mineral  soil.  The  soil  should  have 
no  stones,  in  order  to  allow  of  proper  seed  planting  and  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  treatment  of  the  plants. 

II.  Exposure:  The  best  exposure  is  a  gentle  northwest  slope. 
The  bottom  of  a  valley  is  too  frosty  in  spring.  Southwest  and 
southeast  slopes  are  subject  to  rapid  atmospheric  changes.  Eastern 
aspects  invite  damage  by  frost. 

III.  Proximity  to  water  and  possibility  of  irrigation. 

IV.  Accessibility  for  laborers  and  distance  from  ranger's  house. 

D.  Fertilizing:  Stationary  forest  gardens  require  continuous 
fertilizing.     Crops  of  seedlings  exh-aust  the  soil  like  crops  of  grain. 

The  following  table  exhibits,  in  pounds  per  acre,  the  amounts 
of  fertilizing  matter  annually  consumed  by  Pine  seedlings.  Pine 
poles  and  crops  of  rye. 

Yellow  pine  Yellow  pine                 Crop  of 

Fertilizing  matter.  one  year  old.  eighty  years  old.               rye. 

Phosphoric  acid  9.8  lbs.  1.7  lbs.  16.7  lbs. 

Potash 20.7  lbs.  2.8  lbs.  24.2  lbs. 

Calcium 17.2  lbs.  10.1  lbs.              9.7  lbs. 

Magnesia 3.0  lbs.  2.0  lbs.              4.2  lbs. 

Sulphuric  acid   0.0  lbs.  0.3  lbs.               1.1  lbs. 

The  following  fertilizers  are  used  in  forest  gardens: 

I.  Animal  manure,  which  is  considered  best.  Cattle  manure 
is  preferred  to  horse  manure;  on  clay  soil,  however,  horse  manure 
is  better.  Heavy  weeds  come  up  from  stable  manure  which  has 
not  had   time  to  fully  decompose. 

II.  Commercial  fertilizers:  Experiments  conducted  with  super- 
phosphate,  bone   meal   and    so    on   have   failed   to    yield   conclusive 

87 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

results.  The  best  kalium  fertilizer  seems  to  be  kainit  (kalium 
chloride) ;  the  best  nitrogen  fertilizer  is  saltpeter. 

After  Von  Schroeder,  the  following  quantities  of  phosphates, 
potash  and  nitrates  are  needed  to  raise  4,000,000  plants  on  an 
acre  of  nursery: 

520  lbs  kainit. 

60  lbs.  superphosphate. 

320  lbs.  whale  guano. 

III.  Humus,  the  natural  forest  manure,  is  the  cheapest  fer- 
tilizer obtainable  in  the  woods.  Mould  of  Pines  mixed  with  that 
of  broad-leaved  species  is  best.  Mould  just  one  year  old  is  said 
to  be  richest  in  the  bacilli  favorable  to  tree  growth,  and  to  be 
devoid  of  filiform  fungi  disastrous   to  plants. 

The  weeds  removed  from  nurseries  furnish,  through  their  de- 
composition, a  valuable  humus. 

A  mixture  of  humus  with  street  sweepings,  kitchen  refuse, 
loam,  burned  lime,  etc.,  is  often  placed  in  heaps  near  the  nurseries. 
The  heaps  are  kept  in  a  rotation  so  that  the  heap  made  in  1913 
is  used  in  1916.  The  heaps  are  stirred  up  repeatedly  so  as  to 
be  acted  upon  by  the  air. 

rV^.  Vegetable  matter  other  than  humus.  Vegetable  fertilizer 
may  be  obtained  by  raising,  on  the  fallow  beds,  during  the  fallow 
year,  cowpeas,  clover,  lupine  (the  latter  on  sandy  soil)  and  other 
leguminous  plants,  all  to  be  plowed  under  in  fall. 

Leguminous  plants  increase  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

V.  Wood  ashes:  Excessive  use  of  wood  ashes  is  disastrous  to 
sprouting  plants,  especially  oh  sandy  soil.  Besides  kalium,  wood 
ashes  contain  from  5%  to  20%  of  phosphoric  salts.  Wood  ashes 
should  be  used,  however,  moderately  in  Yellow  Pine  nurseries. 

VI.  Sod  ashes  are  recommended  where  other  fertilizers  are  too 
costly.  Sods  of  grass,  of  weeds  or  of  huckleberries  are  dried  and  the 
majority  of  the  dirt  is  removed.  From  the  sods  is  constructed  a 
kiln  resembling  a  charcoal  pit,  wherein  layers  of  sod  alternate 
with  layers  of  brushwood,  waste,  thinnings,  etc.  The  kiln  is  coated 
with  sods  and  wet  dirt.  Kilns  burn,  according  to  size,  for  from 
two  days  to  two  weeks.  The  sod  ashes  contain  all  mineral  fertil- 
izers needed;  have  great  hygroscopicity  and  are  free  from  insects, 
fungi  and  other  bearers  of  plant  diseases. 

Sod  ashes  should  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  a  year 
before  use,  and  should  then  be  well  mixed  with  tlie  top  layer  of 
nursery  dirt. 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Paragraph  XXX.     Seed  planting  in  seed  beds. 

Seedbeds:  Prescription  for  preparation:  Plough  and  cross- 
plough  to  a  depth  of  one  foot;  mix  manure  well  with  soil;  heap 
the  dirt  taken  from  the  paths  on  top  of  the  beds;   remove  stones. 

Seeds  are  planted  either  broadcast  or  in  drills  to  a  depth  gen- 
erally equaling  their  longest  dimensions. 

A.  Broadcast  planting  is  al\«rays  used  in  commercial  nurs- 
eries while  the  sylviculturists  use  it  merely  for  seeds  of  small 
germinating  percentage  (Birch,  Elm,  Beech,  Alder  and  Yellow  Pop- 
lar) or  in  case  of  light  grained  seeds  which  do  not  allow  of  any 
covering. 

Broadcast  planting  is  permissible  if  seedlings  are  kept  in  the  bed 
one  year  only.  Economy  in  size  of  nursery  and  less  weeding  are 
the  advantages  of  broadcast  planting. 

With  the  help  of  a  roller  or,  better  still,  of  a  heavy  plank, 
the  surface  of  the  seed  bed  is  pressed  down  until  an  even  surface 
is  obtained.  Then  the  seeds  are  planted,  dirt  or  fertilizer  or  sod 
ashes  sifted  on  top,  and  the  surface  of  the  bed  again  pressed  down 
as  before.  To  prevent  the  formation  of  a  crust,  a  cover  of  moss  or 
leaves  is  often  given,  to  be  removed  before  the  time  at  which 
the  cotyledons  are  expected  to  appear.  Better  than  moss  or  leaves 
are  coverings  consisting  of  Pine  branches  (exception:  on  Pine  seeds). 

B.  Planting  in  rills.  The  rills  are  from  one -fourth  to  three 
inches  wide;  made  with  a  "rill  board,"  a  plank  well  seasoned  to 
which  mouldings  are  nailed.  These  mouldings  may  either  be  square 
or  triangular  in  their  cross  sections'. 

The  rills  are  from  five  to  ten  inches  apart.  Double  rills  are 
preferred,  lately,  in  Germany.  In  order  to  economize  in  the  use  of 
fertilizer  and  in  order  to  obtain  a  compact  root  system,  trenches 
are  sometimes  made  and  filled  with  particularly  fertile  soil,  at 
a  distance  apart  equaling  that  of  the  rills.  These  trenches  are 
made  with  a  special  "  trench  hoe,"  triangular  in  shape.  The  seed 
is  put  in  the  rill  with  the  hand,  with  the  help  of  a  reduplicated 
playing  card,  a  bottle  of  seed  or,  better,  a  stick  2"  x  4"  grooved  on 
one  side  and  as  long  as  the  ^^adth  of  the  bed,  or,  best  of  all,  a 
hinged  gutter  into  which  the  seeds  are  filled  by  "  thimblefuls  "  or 
"spoonfuls,"  evenly  distributed  in  the  base  of  the  gutter.  The 
gutter  is  placed  over  the  rill  and  opened  by  pressing  the  two  sides 
together,  when  the  seeds  drop  through  the  "slot."  To  insure  an 
even  distribution  of  the  seed  in  the  gutter,  small  niches  may  be 
provided  at  short,  equal  intervals  at  the  base  of  the  gutter,  the 
89 


A  :\I  E  R  I  C  A  X    SYLVICULTURE 

aggregate  size  of  the  cavities  corresponding  with  the  quantitj'  of 
seeds  to  be  planted  in  each  rill. 

Hacker's  seed  planting  machine  is  used,  in  German  forest  nurs- 
eries, on  an  increasing  scale  for  the  seeding  of  coniferous  seeds, 
be  it  broadcast,  or  in  rows:  A  wedge-shaped  trough  receives  the 
seeds;  beneath  the  wedgepoint  is  an  opening  allowing  the  seeds  to 
drop  into  the  horizontal  grooves  of  a  metal  wheel;  the  grooves  may 
be  closed,  and  the  dropping  of  seeds  into  them  thus  prevented 
partiaHy,  by  a  series  of  brass  rings  fitted  over  the  wheel;  tlie 
machine  is  pushed  over  the  seedbed,  the  wheel  is  caused  to  rotate, 
and  the  seeds  are  conveyed  by  the  grooves  into  the  top  layer  of  the 
soil;  two  small  brushes  prevent  the  seeds  from  escaping  too  readily, 
and  also  keep  the  wheel  free  from  dirt.  To  the  right  of  the  seed 
wheel  is  a  small  roller,  which  presses  the  seeds  into  the  ground,  or 
else  levels  the  surface  of  the  bed  to  be  planted. 

Advantages  of  rill  planting: 

I.  Economy  in   seed. 

II.  Stronger  plants  of  more  compact  form  grown  at  proper 
intervals  apart. 

III.  Economy   in  manure. 

IV.  Seeds  put  at  proper  depth. 

V.  The  foot  of  plantlet  can  be  easily  covered  with  moss  or 
leaves. 

VI.  Weeding  is  made  easy. 

Unless  experienced  help  can  be  had.  rill-planting  is  certainly 
preferable  to  broad-casting.  Undoubtedly,  however,  insects,  mice 
and  moles  following  the  rills  do  greater  damage  in  rill  than  in  broad- 
cast planting. 

The  quantity  of  seed  per  square  foot  of  seed  bed  depends  on 
the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound;  the  germinating  percentage;  the 
quality  of  soil;  the  number  of  years  which  the  seedling  is  meant 
to  stay  in  the  beds;  rapidity  of  growth.  Oak  2%  of  a  quart; 
Beech  and  Chestnut,  4%  of  a  quart;  Locust,  Ash,  Maple,  Elm,  Birch, 
30  grains;  Alders,  45  grains;  Fir,  150  grains;  Yellow  Pine,  15 
grains;  Spruce,  20  grains,  'J'amarack,  30  grains;  avoirdupois — all 
per  square  foot. 

The  figures  given  are  illustrations,  not  prescriptions. 

Heavy  seeds  (nuts)  are  usually  dibbled  in,  with  a  "dibbling 
board." 


90 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

Paragraph  XXXI.     Transplanting  in  transplant- 
ing beds. 

A.  Transplanting  is  expensive.  It  must  be  done  at  a  time 
when  forest  ■  labor  is  anyhow  fully  occupied.  Transplanting  is, 
therefore,   resortei   to  only 

I.  In  case  of  expensive  seeds  or  seedlings. 

II.  In  case  of  slow  growing  seedlings. 

III.  In  case  of  plants  exposed  in  the  open  to  severe  dangers 
(drought,  frost,  game,  mice,  insects,  weeds). 

B.  To  avoid  transplanting,  the  following  alternatives  are 
used: 

I.  The  affspring  of  very  cheap  seeds  (German  Spruce)  is  "sin- 
gled out,"  weaklings  or  individuals  standing  crowdedly  being  pulled 
out  by  hand,  or  being  cut  out  by  scissors. 

II.  "Root  pruning"  is  used  to  enforce  a  compact  root  system 
by  cutting  off,  with  a  sharp  spade,  far-spreading  roots,  or  long  tap 
roots. 

The  transplanting  distance  is,  at  least,  three  by  six  inches  and 
is  governed  by  rapidity  of  growth  exi>ected  and  by  the  number  of 
years  which  the  transplant  is  to  be  left  in  the   transplanting  bed. 

Transplants  are  set  in  clefts  in  the  transplanting  bed  made 
with  the  help  of  a  transplanting  dagger,  or  are  placed  into  trenches 
made  with  a  hoe  or  spade.  So  as  to  regulate  the  operation,  planting 
boards  are  often  used,  along  which  the  seedlings,  whilst  pressed  into 
equidistant  slight  grooves,  are  held  in  proper  position. 

Professor  Toumey's  planting  board,  used  in  many  American 
nurseries,  catches  the  seedlings  to  be  inserted  between  the  upper 
and  lower  lid  of  two  timbers,  the  lids  holding  the  tops  of  the  plants, 
with  the  roots  hanging  free,  as  if  they  were  pressed  between  the 
covers  of  a  book. 

Forstwart  Schlag's  planting  board  holds  the  seedlings  between; 
two  timbers  connected  by  iron  pins.  Strong  rakes,  with  oblique 
handles,  are  used  to  make  the  trench  receiving  the  seedlings. 

Forstmeister  Hacker's  planting  board  is  similar  to   Schlag's. 

Transplants  are  often  left  for  but  one  year  in  the  transplanting 
bed,  although  the  act  of  transplanting  weakens  the  plant  tempo- 
rarily, thus  checking  the  first  year's  growth  in  the  transplanting 
bed.  Conifers  should  not  be  transplanted  more  than  once.  Hard- 
woods are  rarely  transplanted  for  forest  purposes  more  than  once, 
excepting  the  Ash,  saplings  of  which  are  used  for  planting  in. 
inundation  districts  along  rivers. 

91 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  XXXII.     Protection  of  nurseries. 

A.  Against  drought:  Lath  covers,  cloth  covers,  branches, 
cornstalks,  top  covering  of  slabs,  laths,  etc.;  cultivating  rows  of 
plants;  watering  which  must  be  continued  if  once  begun. 

B.  Against  frost:  Same  measures  as  in  "A"  inclusive  of 
watering;  smoking  fires;  pressing  seedlings  lifted  by  frost  back 
into  the  bed;  no  weeding  from  September  on. 

C.  Against  excessive  rain  (which  washes  the  plants  out,  or 
splashes  them  with  mud-pants,  or  incrusts  the  surface)  :  Top 
dressing  of  leaves,  moss  or  Pine  branches;  "combing"  mud-pants 
off  the  seedlings;   lath  or  brush  covers. 

Paragraph  XXXIII.     Nursing  in  nurseries. 

A.  'Weeding:  Weeding  is  facilitated  in  nurseries  by  a  regular 
arrangement  of  the  plants  and  by  narrow  beds.  Tools  are:  Knife, 
fork,  hoe  or  special  weeding  wheels.  Weeding  should  be  stopped 
a  month  before  frost  occurs.  The  purpose  of  weeding  is  not  only 
the   removal   of   competitors;    it   is   also   the   aeration    of    the    soil. 

Weeding  can  be  dispensed  with  in  dense,  broadcast  seed  beds; 
in  thinly  stocked  beds  planted  broadcast  it  is  most  necessary  and 
most  difficult. 

B.  Cultivation:  Cultivation  in  the  transplanting  beds  of  the 
commercial  nurseries  is  done  by  cultivators  drawn  by  a  horse. 
Cultivation  in  forest  nurseries  proper  purports  to  break  the  crust 
forming  under  the  influence  of  heavy  rain.  Usually  the  act  of 
weeding  cultivates  the  soil  as  well.  Cultivation  is  most  easily 
effected  by  drawing  some  strong  nails  driven  into  a  stick  along 
each  rill.  This  cultivation,  at  the  same  time,  disturbs  and  scares 
away  mice,  voles  and  insects. 

C.  Carpeting  the   intervals   between  rills  or  rows. 
Reversed  moss,  spent  tan,  sawdust,  straw,  hay,  twigs   (always 

of  another  species),  poles  (not  fresh  cut  jnne  poles,  which  are  incuba- 
tors to  snout  beetles)  are  often  laid  between  the  rills  or  rows  so  as  to 
preserve  the  moisture,  to  prevent  mud-pants  from  forming  on  the 
stemlets  and  to  check  weeds.  These  carpets,  however,  harbor  mice 
and  insects.  Large  leaves  in  the  carpet  threaten  to  smother  young 
seedlings  if  blown  upon  them. 

D.  Trimming.  The  top  shoot  when  killed  by  early  frost  or 
drought  might  be  cut   off.      In  no   other  case   must  it  be  touched. 

92 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

The  side  branches  of  broad-leafed  species  and  of  winterbald  coni- 
fers might  be  clipped  before  or  after  planting  and  transplanting  so 
as  to  reestablish  the  previous  equilibrium  existing  between  water 
sucking  power  of  the  roots  now  checked  by  transplanting  and  water 
evaporation  from  the  crownlets  left  unchecked  by  planting.  Species 
having  a  heavy  central  pith  column  should  not  be  trimmed  too 
close  to  the  stemlet  (Ash,  Catalpa,  Maple).  Ash  and  Catalpa  are 
apt  to  form  for"ks  which  may  be  prevented  by  timely  trimming. 

Large  broad-leaved  plants  planted  in  furrows  often  die,  when 
shaken  loose  by  winds.  They  may  be  saved  if  cut  to  the  ground 
previous  to  June   15th. 


Paragraph  XXXIV.      Special   nursery   methods 
proclaimed   by  renowned   sylviculturists. 

A.  Biermans'  method:  Peel  the  soil  cover  from  an  area  four 
times  the  size  of  the  seed  bed  and  burn  the  sods  thus  gotten  into 
sod  ashes.  Leave  them  over  winter.  In  spring,  mix  one-half  of  the 
sod  ashes  with  the  stirred-up  top  dirt  of  the  intended  seed  bed.  Spread 
the  other  one-half  pure  on  top  of  the  bed.  Smooth  the  surface  of 
the  bed  and  press  it  with  a  board.  Spread  seeds  broadcast  as  close 
together  as  possible,  so  that  the  soil  is  hardly  visible  between  the 
grains.  Cover  seeds  with  sod  ashes  sifted  on  top,  and  press  the 
cover  down  with  a  board.  Transplant  the  young  germs  in  June. 
Shorten  the  taproot  of  Oaks  by  cutting  with  a  sharp  knife.  Oak 
nurseries  should  be  underlaid  with  impenetrable  soil.  Yellow  Pine 
and  Larch  should  be  used  in  the  open  when  one  year  old;  all  other 
species  two  to  three  years  old. 

This  method  yields  very  well  rooted  seedlings.  The  use  of 
sod  ashes  is,  perhaps  not  an  essential  feature  of  the  method;  fer- 
tilizer or  manure  might  be  taken  instead.  The  striking  point 
is  the  transplanting  of  germs  in  June. 

B.  Von  Buttlar  method:  Von  Buttlar  wants  to  raise  long 
roots,  not  compact  roots,  for  use  in  sandy  soil.  The  nursery  is 
worked  to  a  depth  of  three  feet,  the  bottom  soil  being  brought  to 
the  surface.  Larch,  Fir  and  Elm  seed  are  planted  broadcast;  all 
other  species  in  rills.  No  transplanting.  All  species  are  used  one  or 
two   years  old. 

C.  Von  ManteufFel  method:  The  plants  required  by  Man- 
teuffel  must  have  short,  flat  roots.  Consequently,  the  best  soil  in  the 
nursery  should  be  the  top  soil,  and  the  ground  underneath  should 
not  be  worked  to  any  depth. 

93 


A  il  E  R  I  C  A  X    S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

Remove  the  top  layer  of  the  soil,  by  peeling,  and  beat  tlie  dirt 
■out  of  the  peeled  sods  onto  the  seed  beds.  Mix  it  with  the  dirt 
of  the  underground  in  fall.  In  spring,  burn  the  sods  and  other 
vegetable  matter  at  hand  on  the  beds,  mixing  the  wood  ashes  thus 
obtained  with  the  top  soil.  Spruce  shall  not  be  transplanted  and 
is  to  be  used  when  two  yeais  old.  Fir  and  all  broad-leafed  species 
must  be  transplanted. 

D.  Von  Ueblagger  luetliod:  Regardless  of  species  and  age 
and  size,  all  seedlings  are  dug  from  all  lieds,  hefore  the  frost  sets  in, 
and  are  kept  in  a  heeled-in  position,  duly  covered,  all  Avinter  long. 
The  beds  free  from  seedlings  are  impregnated  and  fertilized  by  the 
atmosphere  during  winter.  The  seedlings  are  ready  to  outplant  or 
transplant  at  once  in  spring.     The  results  obtained  are  excellent. 


Paragraph  XXXV.      Raising  and  planting  hard- 
wood seedlings. 

Beech:  Usual  age  of  plants  fit  for  use,  two  to  five  years. 
Transplants  rarely  used.  Ball  plants  very  successful.  Bunch  plant- 
ing best,  especially  for  underplanting.  Do  not  cut  stemlet  to  the 
ground  and  avoid  pruning.  Planting  in  open  clearings  hardly  suc- 
cessful. Beech  best  for  underplanting.  Instruments' used  are:  hoe, 
spiral  spade,  cleft  irons.  Almost  light  demander  on  poor  soil. 
Beech  is  exacting  (good  soil  and  moisture). 

Black  Locust:  Seeds  should  be  planted  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  inches  deep,  an  exception  from  the  usual  rule  as  to  the  depth 
of  planting,  considering  the  small  size  of  the  seed.  Drills  eight 
inches  apart.  Germinating  percentage  of  seeds  very  high.  Seedlings 
arc  fit  for  planting  when  one  year  old.  Usually,  however,  they 
are  left  in  the.seed  bed  for  two  years,  and  are  then  planted  directly 
in  the  open.  The  planting  of  stumps  and  fall  planting  are  strongly 
recommended.  Plantations  liandicaj)ped  by  twigboring  moth 
(Ecdytolopha  species)  and  by  voles.  Locust  grown  in  the  open  is 
inferior  to  forest  grown  Locust. 

Liinden:  Is  usually  planted  in  the  open  as  a  transplant  three 
to  four  years  old,  or  as  a  ball  plant  two  or  three  years  old.  Spring 
planting.  Good  soil  required.  Pruning  of  branches  a  necessity. 
Plantations  in  Biltmore  made  in  '98  on  splendid  soil,  but  without 
cover  overhead,  were  slow  to  develop. 
94 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Oaks:  The  nursery  treatment  differs  greatly  according  to  local 
likes  and  forestry  authorities  relied  upon.  The  treatment  of  the 
tap  root  is  a  continuous  point  of  dispute.  Manteuffel  cuts  the  tap 
root  one  and  one-half  inches  below  ground  (just  as  the  voles  did 
in  Biltmore  nurseries).  Buttlar  ties  a  knot  into  the  root.  Alemann 
forbids  any  crippling  of  the  tap  root,  making  an  extra  cleft 
in  the  planting  hole  to  receive  the  tap  root.  Levret  prevents  the 
■development  of  a  tap  root  by  placing  the  acorns  on  macadam, 
covering  them  with  one  inch  of  dirt.  The 'ground  underneath  the 
macadam  must  be  hard. 

Large  areas  of  Oak  planted  in  Northern  C4ermany  witli  the  tap 
root  removed  prove  the  success  of  jManteuffel's  method.  The  hollow 
borer  cannot  be  used.  Trimming  of  branches  is  all  right.  Roots 
should  be  pruned,  after  Fiirst,  with  a  sharp  spade  at  six  inches 
below  ground  in  the  second  spring.  Spring  planting  is  best.  Some 
planters  remove  the  first  germ  of  the  acorn  ("  off'germing ")  with 
a  view  to  stopping  the  development  of  the  tap  root.  Stiimp  plants 
do  very  well,  especially  in  the  coppice  woods.  Usually  seedlings 
one  and  two  years  old  are  planted.  The  use  of  saplings,  transplanted 
repeatedly,  is  not  advisable.  Cleft  planting  of  seedlings  on  broom- 
sedge  fields  at  Biltmore  proved  unsuccessful;  the  weeds  choking 
and  the  rabbits  eating  the  seedlings.  Cleft  planting  in  cutover 
woodlands,  however,  on  fairly  loose  soil  is  a  method  to  be  strongly 
endorsed.  In  France  the  clefts  are  made  inclined,  not  vertical; 
saplings  20  years  old  do  not  show  any  crooks  due  to  the  method. 
Planting  of  seedlings  or  of  young  transplants  in  spade  holes,  in 
furrows  or  in  clefts  made  between  the  lid  and  the  pit  formed  by 
reversed  sods  prove  successful  at  Biltmore.  Young  plants  are  not 
subject  to  lifting  by  frost  nor  do  they  suffer  from  drought.  The 
nursery  should  not  be  worked  deeper  than  one  foot  while  the  success 
of  the  final  plantation  largely  depends  on  looseness  of  ground  at  a 
greater  dej^th.  Generally  Red  Oak  is  more  vigorous  in  early  youth 
than  White  Oak.  At  Biltmore,  Chestnut  Oak  is  the  best  species  for 
abandoned  fields.  The  Yellow  Pines  are  valuable  as  nurses  or 
ushers,  when  planted  with  or  in  advance  of  the  Oaks. 

Chestnut:  Soil  well  worked  to  a  depth  of  sixteen  inches, 
potash  a  necessity,  lime  disastrous.  Seedling  planting  (plants  one 
•or  two  years  old)  forms  the  rule;  planting  of  stumps  is  also  good. 

Since    Chestnut   is   very   sensitive   under   changed   conditions   of 

growth,  ball  planting  is  probably  the  best  method.     Seeds  are  often 

kept  in  the  burs  over  winter,  or  in  layers  alternating  with  layers  of 

■dry    sand.      Immediate   fall   planting,   however,   is   best.      Nuts    are 

95 


A  :\I  E  E  I  C  A  X    SYLVICULTURE 

planted  in  drills  two  inches  deep  two  inches  apart,  the  rows  of 
drills  six  to  twelve  inches  apart.  At  Biltniore  planting  of  seedlings 
has  met  with  continuous  failure.  Planting  under  cover  or  under 
an  usher  growth  is  probably  advisable.  Chestnut  is  exacting,  need- 
ing atmospheric  as  well  as  soil  moisture. 

Tree  Alder:  It  is  usually  planted  as  a  transplant  three  to 
five  years  old.  Yearlings  are  too  small;  seedlings  two  years  old  can 
be  ball  planted.  Trimming  allowed.  Seeds  planted  broadcast  on  the 
beds,  one- fourth  inch  5f  dirt  on  top.  Sprinkling  necessary.  No 
protection  against  atmosphere  needed.  On  swampy  ground,  fall 
planting  of  transplants  is  best.  Since  Alder  is  particularly  well 
adapted  to  thrive  on  non-aerated  soil,  it  should  be  tried  for  prairie 
planting. 

Birch:  Seeds  very  poor  in  percentage  of  germination.  Seeds 
must  be  covered  very  slightly  or  better  perhaps,  must  be  beaten 
with  a  shovel  into  the  nursery  soil  after  broadcasting.  Formation 
of  crust  over  seeds  is  best  prevented  by  a  cover  of  Pine  branches. 
Under  lath  screens,  the  germs  are  apt  to  damp  off.  Seedlings  are 
planted  either  as  two  year  olds,  with  or  without  balls,  or  as  trans- 
planted stumps  three  to  five  years  old.  Birch  is  sensitive  to  deep 
planting;  is  not  affected  by  heat,  frost  or  drought. 

Ash:  The  easiest  species  among  hardwoods  to  raise,  plant  and 
transplant.  Planted  as  a  seedling  one  year  old  or  transplanted  up 
to  three  times.  Plants  as  old  as  eight  years  can  be  planted  suc- 
cessfully without  balls.  Seed  is  placed  in  rills  seven  to  twelve 
inches  apart.  Where  soil  is  very  weedy,  large  and  strong  trans- 
plants must  be  used.  Planting  in  noles,  on  mounds  or  in  furrows. 
The  cleft  spade  is  also  permissible  in  planting  yearlings.  Trimming 
is  not  advisable,  except  to  prevent  formation  of  forks.  Transplant- 
ing of  germs,  in  June,  is  quite  successful. 

Elm:  Seeds  to  be  planted  in  summer  (excepting  Slippery 
Elms),  just  after  ripening,  in  rich  nurseries,  and  to  receive  very 
light  cover  of  sand.  Seed  beds  must  be  sprinkled,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  crust  must  be  prevented.  Seedlings  cannot  penetrate 
a  layer  of  one-half  an  inch  of  dirt.  Usually,  transplants  three  to 
five  years  old  are  used.  Fall  planting  is  preferred.  Elms  stand 
trimming  easily. 

Maple:     Drills  three-fourth  inches   deep,  one   inch  wide,   eight 
inches    apart.     Transplanting   takes    place    when   seedlings    are    one 
or  two   years  old.      Seedlings  grow   rapidly.     Fall   planting  is   pre- 
ferable.    Planting  in  large  holes  is  best,  since  Maple  cannot  form 
96 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

a  compact  root  system.  (Sugar  Maple  planted  four  years  old  at 
Biltmore  on  abandoned  Helds  did  very  well  on  North  Slopes,  in 
pure  stands  as  well  as  mixed  with  White  Pine.  Maple  is  easily 
out-planted,  and  even  yearlings  or  two  year  olds  might  be  planted 
in  the  open  on  good  soil.  In  swamps.  Red  and  Soft  Maple  are 
preferable.     Sugar  Maple  requires  well  drained  soil. 

YellovT-  Poplar:  Very  poor  seeds,  hence  broadcast  planting. 
Covering  with  spent  sawdust,  instead  of  dirt,  seems  advisable. 
Seedlings  transplanted  either  as  germs  in  first  summer  or  when  one 
year  old.  Very  rapid  growth  in  first  and  second  year.  Easily 
transplanted  in  holes  on  suitable  soil.  Seedlings  can  be  taken  in 
.June  and  July  from  wood  roads  to  the  nurseries,  with  balls  of. 
dirt.  Abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  planted  with  four  year  olds 
did  poorly  except  in  northern  depressions  or  in  mixture  with  ^Vliite 
Pine.     Strong   soil   needed.     Compact   soil   not  unfavorable. 

Catalpa:  The  favorite  Kansas  prairie  tree.  Very  high  germ- 
inating percentage.  Very  fast  growth  in  first  year.  Rills  one  inch 
by  one  inch  by  twelve  inches.  Seedling  plants  one  .year  old  are 
strong  enough  for  planting.  Stump  plants  are  preferable.  At 
Biltmore  the  top  shoot  is  often  killed  by  frost;  it  should  certainly 
be  cut  off  after  planting.  Catalpa  requires  wheat  soil  in  order 
to  form  proper  bole,  and  does  not  answer  in  a  cold  climate.  Spring 
planting  in  holes  or  furrows. 

Walnuts:  The  planting  of  seealings  is  not  permissible  except 
where  mice,  squirrels  and  hogs  are  sure  to  get  the  nuts.  Very  long 
taps  make  planting  difficult.  Best  soil  needed.  Small  seedlings  are 
choked  out  by  weeds.  Plants  one  to  three  years  old  to  be  used, 
and  pure  plantations  to  be  avoided.  Cover  in  the  nurseries  three 
inches,  distance  apart  four  to  ten  inches. 

Hickory:  To  be  treated  like  Walnuts;  during  the  first  years, 
the  stems  remain  very  minute  while  a  large  tap  root  forms.  Voles 
follow  along  the  rows  of  plants  and  cut  off  the  roots  at  a  point 
about  one  inch  below  ground.     Loose,  porous  soil  is  needed. 

Cherry:  Planted  in  rills  one-half  inch  deep  and  eight  inches 
apart.  Transplants  two  or  three  years  old,  transplanted  when  one 
year  old  are  best  for  use  in  the  open.  Protection  from  rabbits 
peeling  the  stumps  is  required.  Rapid  growth  in  nurseries.  Twig 
tips  are  usually  killed  by  the  first  frost  since  the  twigs  grow 
during  the  whole  summer  and  fall.  Pruning  required,  Black  Cherry 
does  well  on  abandoned  fields  mixed  with  White  Pine,  Pine,  Ash, 
Maple. 

97 


A  ]\I  E  R  I  C  A  X    SYLVICULTURE 

Sassafras:  Planting  of  seed  in  nurseries  at  Biltmore  has  been 
an  entire  failure.  The  seeds  lived  through  the  first  summer  but 
did  not  begin  to  sprout.  Deep  cover  required,  since  cotyledons  are 
kept  underground.  The  removal  of  the  flesh  enwrapping  the  seed 
(by  malting,  etc.),  is  required  before  planting. 


Paragraph  XXXVI.     Raising  and  planting  soft- 
wood seedlings. 

Yellow  Pines:  Seeds  are  covered  two-fifths  to  three-fifths 
inches'  deep.  Nursery  soil  to  be  pressed  thoroughly  before  and  after 
seed  planting.  Planting  of  yearlings  (from  5,000  to  40,000  per  acre) 
forms  the  rule.  The  roots  of  such  yearlings  are  ten  inches  long. 
On  sandy  soil,  cleft  planting  is  universal  (with  planting  dagger). 
On  binding  soil,  ball  plants  one  or  two  years  old  are  best. 

Recently  some  foresters  recommend  transplants  two  years  old 
which  more  readily  overcome  the  infantile  diseases.  No  mound 
nor  bunch  planting.  On  very  sandy  soil  Yellow  Pines  are  planted 
deeper  (up  to  first  needles)  than  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  A 
plantation  ten  years  old  should  densely  cover  the  grovmd. 

Jack  Pine  (Pinus  divaricata)  does  very  well  on  the  poorest 
sand.  Very  rapid  growth.  Pinus  rigida  crawls  on  the  ground  dur- 
ing the  first  and  second  j'ear,  putting  up  a  strong  stem  thereafter. 
Pinus  sylvestris  (Scotch  Pine)  is  the  cheapest  that  can  be  planted 
and  the  most  successful  species  in  the  Adirondacks.  At  Biltmore 
it  does  exceedingly'  well  on  dry  south  slopes.. 

White  Pine:  Quite  different  from  Y^ellow  Pine  is  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  transplanted.  Seedlings  one  year  old  are  very 
small  and  apt  to  suff'er  from  leaves  smothering  them.  Seedlings 
two  years  old  have  been  planted  at  Biltmore  on  abandoned  fields 
(in  holes)  very  successfully.  Transplants  three  and  four  years  old 
are  usually  used.  Owing  to  its  greater  shade  bearing  qualities 
White  Pine  may  be  used  also  for  temporary  underplanting.  Seed- 
lings suff'er  badly  from  fungi.  White  Pine  is  subject  to  damage 
from  too-deep  planting.  In  the  Adirondacks,  the  best  and  strongest 
individuals  form  a  second  summer  shoot,  the  buds  of  which  are  killed 
by  early  frost,  so  that  no  top  shoot  grows  in  the  ensuing  year.  At 
Biltmore,  the  second  shoot  seems  to  be  safe  from  frost. 

Spruce:  Nursery  rills  one  inch  wide,  five  inches  apart.  Trans- 
planting distance  usually  four  to  six  inches.  Slow  growth  at  first. 
Smallest  size  that  may  be  used  are  seedlings  two  years  old.     Ball 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

planting  best,  bunch  planting  frequent  in  mountains.  Transplants 
three  to  five  years  old  are  preferable.  Plant  in  holes,  never  in 
clefts.  Badly  affected  by  deep  planting.  Spring  planting  forms 
the  rule  except  in  high  mountains.  High  atmospheric  moisture  is 
a  prerequisite  for  Spruce.  Do  not  trim.  Number  of  plants  per 
acre  from  1,500  transplants  to  10,000  seedlings.  Picea  excelsa  might 
replace  P.  rubens  (the  former  being  cheaper),  if  the  resistance  to 
snow-breaks  shown  by  rubens  were  equalled  by  excelsa.  Planta- 
tions twelve  years  old  should  fully  cover  the  ground. 

Firs:  Seed  should  be  planted  in  fall.  Rills  close,  say  four 
inches;  cover,  one-half  inch.  Early  growth  very  slow;  lath  screens 
very  essential,  owing  to  sensitiveness  of  youngsters  to  heat  and 
cold.  Transplants  five  years  old  are  best.  Planting  on  open  ground 
is  dangerous;  miderplanting  is  very  advisable.  Species  most  planted 
are  Abies  pectinata,  balsamea,  concolor. 

Larcli  or  Tamarack:  The  European  and  Japanese  Larch 
are  scattering  species,  doing  badly  in  pure  stands.  Growth  in  early 
youth  is  rapid.  Seedlings  two  years  old  and  transplants  three  years 
old  are  preferred  for  forest  planting.  The  distance  of  the  rills, 
and  the  transplanting  distance  must  be  comparatively  wide.  Seed- 
lings might  be  cleft  planted;  but  hole  planting  forms  the  rule. 
Fall  planting  necessary.  Larch  permits  of  heavy  trimming.  Mulch 
seeds  for  one  week  before  planting.  European  Larch  does  well  at 
Biltmore  and  in  the  Adirondacks. 

Hemlock:  Grows  very  slowly  in  youth.  Seedbeds  require 
heavy  sheltering  (under  cloth  screens).  Transplant  the  two  year 
olds,  and  plant  the  five  year  olds  under  cover  in  the  woods. 

Douglas  Fir:  Seeds  are  still  expensive;  hence  transplants 
four  years  old  are  usual,  though  seedlings  two  years  old  are  certain 
of  success.  Hot-house  treatment  of  seeds  secures  early  and  simul- 
taneous sprouting.  Plant  seedlings  in  open  ground,  not  under  cover. 
Plantations  made  near  London,  England,  lose  the  long  top  shoots 
by  sea  winds;  in  the  Adirondacks,  they  suffer  from  frost;  at  Bilt- 
more, the  growth  is  strikingly  poor,  possibly  due  to  the  deficiency 
in  atmospheric  humidity.  Plants  fourteen  years  old  are  hardly  chest 
high;  plants  eleven  years  old  only  knee  high.  In  all  cases  the 
Washington  variety  is  used.  Varietas  glauca,  of  Colorado,  grows 
slowly,  and  is  more  hardy. 

Red  Cedar  ( Juniperus  virginiana)  ;  Seed  lies  dormant  for  one 
summer.  Seedlings  two  years  old  are  ready  for  planting.  High 
lath  screens  in  nurseries  advisable  (Green).  Very  slow  growth. 
Shade  bearing.  99 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Lawson's     Cypress:       Stands     intense     sliade,     resists     frosts, 
sutlers  from  fungi;   is  well  adapted  to  underplanting. 


Paragraph  XXXVII.     Results  of  planting  experi- 
ments with  American  hardwoods. 

For  many  years,  the  governmental  forestry  bureaus  of  the  Ger- 
man States  have  been  examining  the  merits  of  some  leading  Ameri- 
can tree  species. 

Locust  and  White  Pine  have  been  planted  so  extensively  that 
they  are  considered  as  "  naturalized  forest  citizens." 

In  a  number  of  instances,  the  European  views  fail  to  tally  with 
the  results  of  American  investigations  made  with  reference  to  the 
sylvics  of  our  leading  species. 

A.  Fraxinus  americana:  Requirements  as  in  excelsa ;  stands 
inundation  better.  Germination  in  first  spring.  Plant  seeds  in  fall, 
or  else  in  early  spring  after  three  days  soaking.  One  year  old,  one 
foot  high. 

Use  transplants  two  or  three  years  old. 

Root  is  a  tap-root  wath  many  side  roots. 

Mayr  does  not  advocate  its  propagation  anywhere  in  Germany. 

B.  Catalpa  speciosa:  Suffers  from  short  summers,  often  freez- 
ing down  to  ground.     Hence   frequently  spreading  growth. 

Seeds  of  high  germinating  percentage. 
Use  either  seedlings  or  transplants  two  years  old. 
Light  demanding,  but  fond  of  side  shade. 

Mice  peel  at  point  of  differentiation;  all  game  is  fond  of 
Catalpa. 

C.  Juglans  nigra:  ]\lild,  fresh  soil  required,  and  long  Avarm 
summers. 

When  one  year  old,  strong  tap-roots  over  one  foot  long:  root 
fibres   at  end  of  tap-root  tip. 

When  two  years  old,  the  tap-root  is  over  two  and  one-quarter 
feet  long. 

Height  growth:     5  years  old,     5  feet. 
10  years  old,  13  feet. 
20  years  old,  35  feet. 
Decidedly  light  demanding;   fond  of  side  shade  in  early  youth. 
Yellow  Pine  shelter  wood  is  very  good:     More   shade  prevents 
lignification.     in  close  stands,  it  is  free  from  branches. 
100 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Nuts  sprouting  late  (being  dried  out)  cause  shoots  to  be  killed 
by  early  frost:     Hence  pre-germination  advisable. 

Frost  hard  in  sapling  stage. 

No  game   or  mice   enemies. 

Plant  nuts  or  yearlings  on  well-plowed  ground,  and  cultivate. 
Plant  close  together,  so  as  to  avoid  branchiness.  Prime  none  but 
lignified  brandies,  owing  to  heavy  pith  column. 

D.  Prunus  serotina:  Modest,  provided  soil  is  moist. 
Light  demanding,  but  does  well  under  slight  Pine  cover. 
Roots  many  tapped,  strong. 

Height  growth  better  than  tiiat  of  any  European  hardwood, 
save  Ash. 

5  years  old,     6  feet  high. 

10  years  old,  13  feet  high. 

15  years  old,  22  feet  high. 

Proof  against  all  effects  of  frost. 

Rabbits   cut    and   peel    (also    mice)    young   plants. 

Seed-beds:  Plant  in  fall,  to  avoid  lying  over,  or  else  soak  in 
water  for  three  days  previous  to  planting  in  spring. 

Use  transplants  three  years  old;  plant  close,  to  avoid  side 
branches. 

E.  Acer  saccliaruiu:  Fresh,  sandy  loam,  or  fresh  sand; 
forming  stool-shoots  on  dry  soil,  and  no  stem. 

Growth  quick;    light  demanding;    strong  root  system. 

Forms  forks  frequently  fifteen  feet  above  ground. 

Height  35  feet,  when  twenty  years  old. 

Most  frost  hard  of  all  Maple  species.  Game  and  rabbits  ( ?) 
despise  it. 

Seeds  mature  in  June,  and  can  be  planted  at  once,  but  are 
just  as  well  preserved  and  planted  in  spring. 

Use  seedlings  two   years  old,  or  transplants,  four  years  old. 

F.  Acer  negundo:  Requires  strong  soil;  does  not  do  on  dry 
soil.  Growth  very  quick  to  start  with,  in  two  years  up  to  six  feet, 
in  twenty  years  fifty  feet. 

Development  of  low,  branchy  crown. 
Light  demanding,   frost   proof. 
LTse   seedlings  one  year  old. 
Damaged   by   game   and   rabbits. 

G.  Acer  saccharinum:     Requires   strong  soil;   not  clay. 
Growth  slower  than  in  other  Maples,  up  to  fifth  year;  20  years 

old  thirty-five  feet  high. 
Apt   to   form   forks. 

101 


A  J\I  E  R I  C  A  N    SYLVICULTURE 

Sensitive  against  frost  and  drought;  requires  sliade;  does  best 
when  used  for  underplanting. 

Use  transplanted   small   saplings. 

Avoid  planting  on  open  ground. 

Mayr  recommends  it  for  sugar  orchards,  not  for  timber 
production. 

H.  Betula  lenta:  Avoids  wet  frost  dells  and  poor  dry  soil; 
forms  tap-root  on  sand  and  flat-root  on  clay. 

Height  in  five  years  five  feet;  in  tAvent}^  years  thirty-six  feet. 

Growth  bushy  to  start  with,  but  soon  straight,  erect  and  free 
from  branches. 

Decidedly  light  demanding,  but  fond  of  side  shade. 

No  more  frost-proof  than  Beech.  Late  and  early  frost  damages 
it,  especially  on  wet  clay. 

Game,  rabbits  and  mice  are  very  dangerous. 

Seed-bed  should  not  be  dug  over. — Peel-off  the  top  cover  of  grass 
and  weeds  on  humose  sand,  hoe  the  soil  and  then  use  roller.  Plant 
broadcast,  one  pound  for  two  square  poles;  cover  by  sifting  one- 
twenty-fifth  inch  of  sand  on  the  seeds  and  roll  again  with  roller; 
keep  Pine  brandies  on  the  seed-bed  until  after  germination. 

Use  tall  transplants  for  planting  in  the  open,  owing  to  animal 
dangers. 

Red  Birch  is  said  to  do  well  when  planted  with  Pine  on  aban- 
doned fields,  or  when  planted  with  Beech  naturally  regenerated. 

I.  Hickories:  All  hickories  require  strong,  deep  fresh,  soil. 
Not   on   clay. 

Pignut  is  satisfied  with  more  sand,  and  jMockernut  with  more 
clay. 

Butternut  requires  water,  more  than  the  others,  and  stands 
inundation. 

All  hickories  require  hot  summers  but  stand  severe  winters; 
continental   climate    is    better   suited  than   sea   climate. 

Tap-root  of  yearling  one  foot  long;  of  two  year  old  plant  one 
and  three-quarter  feet;  hence  transplanting  after  two  years  very 
difficult. 

Height  growth  begins  in  the  case  of  Hicoria  ovata  to  set  in 
from  sixth  year,  and  is  good  then. 

Age     5  years,  average  heiglit     2.4  feet. 

Age  10  years,  average  height     7      feet. 

Age  15  years,  average  height  13      feet. 

Age  20  years,  average  height  20      feet. 

Buds  open  late  but  shoot  is  quickly  made. 
102 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Nuts  germinate  slowly;  hence  malting  or  better  repeated 
sprinkling  with  liquid  manure  advisable;  many' nuts  lie  over,  even 
for  two  years.    Nuts  thoroughly  dried  lose  germinating  power. 

Malting   or   ■"  pre-germination  "   advisable. 

In  the  case  of  Hickory  and  Walnut,  the  following  recipe  for 
pre-germination  is  given: 

"Make  a  ditch  three  feet  deep  and  wide;  put  nuts  in  the 
ditch  to  a  depth  of  one  foot;  fill  ditch  with  water  up  to  top  of  nuts; 
then  add  a  slight  cover  of  straw;  then  dirt;  then  horse  manure. 

"  In  this  ditch  the  nuts  are  kept  until  planting  time ;  the  nuts 
will  germinate  a  few  weeks  after  planting   (in  May)." 

Plant  seedlings  one  or  two  years  old,  or  else  nuts,  on  plowed 
ground.     Cultivating  advisable. 

Late  frost  is  avoided  by  the  late  formation  of  shoots.  Early 
frosts  are  bad,  if  seedlings  did  not  have  time  to  lignify  owing  to 
late  germination. 

Avoid  planting  on  open  ground;  shade  is  endured  readily  for  a 
number  of  years.  Straggling  plantations  often  develop  after  natural 
or  artificial  reinforcing  with  other  species. 

Young  plants  suffer  from  mice.  Damaged  seedlings  should  be 
coppiced  down. 

In  Hicoria  minima,  gro\vth  is  quicker  to  begin  with  than  in 
Shagbark. 

At   twenty   years,   however,   Shagbark   catches   iip. 

Wood  much  poorer  than  in  Shagbark   (more  brittle). 

Hicoria  glabra  is  more  modest  as  to  soil  than  Shagbark 
Hickory,  and  more  sensitive  as  to  frost  (?). 

Hicoria  alba  is  more  sensitive  than  Shagbark;  same  rate  of 
growth;  does  well  in  the  Westerwald,  badly  in  river  valleys. 


Paragraph  XXXVIII.     Results    of    planting    ex- 
periments   with    American    softwoods. 

A.  Pinus     divaricata:       Very     modest.       Stands     frost     and 
drought  and  does  not  suffer  from  Hysterium. 

Root  system  tap-rooted,  many  fibred. 

Height  growth  very  rapid,  several  shoots  per  summer. 

2  years  old,     8  inches  high. 

5  years  old,     5     feet     high. 

8  years  old,  10     feet     high. 

Game  and  hares  handicap  it;   still  there  is  strong  reproductive 
power. 

103 


AMERICA>J     SYLVICULTURE 

Seed  one-half  pound  per  square  pole;  seed  has  60%  germina- 
tion;  cones  contain  fertile  seeds  from  sixth  year  on. 

Use  yearlings  or  transplants  two  to  three  years  old  for  the 
very  poorest  soil. 

B.  Pinus  ponderosa:  Fails  absolutely  in  Germany,  probably 
owing  to  insuilii'ient  summer  heat. 

C.  Pinus  rigida;  Very  modest;  does  well  in  salty  swamps; 
suffers   badly   from   snow-pressure. 

When    5  years  old,    7  feet  high. 

When  20  years  old,  32  feet  high. 

Growth  is  very  rapid,  but  from  twelve  years  on  P.  sylvestris 
catches  up  and  then  keeps  ahead. 

Diameter  growth  better  than  in  sylvestris,  too. 

Strong  reproductive  power  after  damage  by  insects,  game,  fire. 

Very  light  demanding. 

Cones  seed-bearing  from  twelfth  year  on. 

More  proof  against  late  frost,  more  sensitive  for  early  frost 
than  sylvestris. 

Less  shedding  of  needles  due  to  Hysterium;  more  danger  from 
game. 

Use  yearlings,  or  transplants  two  years   old. 

D.  Picea  engelmanni :  Likes  strong  but  not  wet  soil — it  is 
winter   frost  hard;    but   sutlers  slightly   from  late  frosts. 

Eoot  system  deep,  many  fibred;  not  flat. 

Dislikes  top  shade. 

Yearling  only  one  to  two  inches  high;  two  years  old  four 
inches  high;   five  years  old  one  foot  high. 

Height  growth  always  slow,  hence  easily  outgrown,  and  i)ure 
stands  required. 

Use  transplants,  five  years  old. 

E.  Picea  parrayana:  \'erv  frost  proof,  more  so  than  any  other 
Spruce. 

Stands  wet  soil;   not  exacting. 
No  top  shade. 

Root  system  compact,  fine  fibred. 
Slow  early  growth,  as  in  Engelmann's  Spruce. 
Plantations   ten   years   old    average   but   one   and    throo-quarter 
feet  in  height. 

Animal   ])rn()f. 

F.  Picea  sitchensis :       Requires  moist  soil  and  moist  air. 
Heat  requirements  as  in  P.  excelsa. 

104 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Soil  requirements  less  tlian  in  P.  excelsa,  growing  both  on  sand 
and  on  clay.  Not  in  stagnating  moisture,  but  stands  inundation 
well. 

Does  well  on  seashore  and  at  high  altitudes. 

Height  growth  at  first  very  slow;  from  fifth  year  on  better  than 
in  excelsa. 

Short  branches,  slowly  dropped;  close  stand  required,  fond  of 
forking. 

No  top  shade.     Side  shade  welcome  but  not  reqviired. 

Frost  and  drought  not  dangerous  except  during  first  and  second 
year. 

Game  does  not  bother  it. 

Seed-beds  of  mild,  rich  soil  to  strengthen  weak  seedlings. 

Use  strong  transplants,  five  years  old. 

G.  Abies  amabilis:     Plants  five  years  old  are  still  subject  to 
damage  by  direct  insolation  and  by  late  frosts. 
Rate  of  growth  as  in  A.  pectinata. 

H.  Abies  concolor:  Spring  shoots  formed  late;  resists  frosts 
and  any  other  climatic  attacks  well. 

Not  exacting  as  to  soil,  doing  well  on  Scotch  Pine  soil  of  second 
quality,  provided  that  it  be  fresh. 

Tap-root   formed   in   second   year. 

Height  growth  in  early  youth  better  than  in  any  other  Fir; 
plants  eight  years  old  have  average  height  of  three  feet. 

On  good  soil,  even   Spruce  is  outgrown  by  it. 

Seedlings  two  years  old  are  fit  for  planting;  they  suffer  when 
planted  too  deep. 

Seed-bed  treatment  as  in  A.  pectinata. 

I.  Abies  grandis:  Treatment  as  in  pectinata,  which  it  ex- 
ceeds in  height  growth.     Soil  requirements  are  the  same. 

J.  Abies  nobilis:  Frost  firm  in  winter,  even  unprotected. 
Late  spring  shoots  help  it  to  escape  late  frosts. 

Stands  dry  soil;  from  fifth  year  on,  more  light  demanding. 
Forms  strong  tap-root,  and  sometimes  several  whirls  of  branches 
per  annum.  Plantation  seven  years  old  is  three  and  one-half  feet 
high. 

Plant  seedlings  two  years  old,  or  transplants  four  years  old. 

K.  Pseudotsuga  taxifolia:  Suitable  to  any  climate,  frost 
proof. 

Soil  should  not  be  poorer  than  third-class  Pine  soil;  no  dunes; 
no  swamps. 

105 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Root  is  a  tap-root  on  k'ose  soil,  is  fiat  on  sliallow  or  binding 
soil,  and  shows  great  adaptability. 

Height  growth  marvelous! 

Age     5  years  height     1.7  feet. 

Age  10  years  height  12      feet. 

Age  15  j'ears  height  29      feet. 

Age  20  years  height  45      feet. 

Age  23  years  height  53      feet. 

Diameter,  twenty-three  years  old,  from  throe  inches  to  ten 
inches,  average  seven  inches;  number  of  trees  per  acre  350. 

Close  stand  required  to  clear  from  branches. 

Light  and  heat  demands  as  in  Picea  excelsa. 

Snow  and  sleet  throw  it  over,  or  break  top  shoot,  the  latter 
loss  being  quickly  replaced  by  side  shoot  taking  lead. 

Game  is  a  bad  enemy. 

Use  transplants  three  to  four  years  old. 

li.  Cliainaecyparis  lawsoniana:  Does  splendidly  in  Germany 
especially  in  the  Eifel  Movmtains  at   1,500  feet  elevation. 

Frost-proof;   but  sensitive  during  drought. 

Exacting  like  Beech,  fond  of  limestone. 

Flat-rooted;  suifers  fi'om  snow. 

Shade  bearing  in  early  yoiith;  fond  of  partial  shade  later  on; 
always  fond  of  side  shade. 

Slow  in  clearing  itself  from  side  branches;  forms  very  close 
stands. 

Very  slow  growth  to  start  with;  one  year  one  inch  high;  two 
years  four  inclies  high ;  ten  years  eight  inches  high. 

Plant  seed-beds  broadcast,  and  cover  them  completely.  Use 
transplants  four  to  five  j'ears  old.    Do  not  plant  too  deep. 

Game  are  very  bad;  wood  mice  peel  the  stump,  or  cut  the  roots. 

Suffers  but  little  from  late  frost  because  of  late  sprouting; 
more  subject  to  harm  by  winter  frost. 

M.  Juniperus  virginiana:     Avoid  poor  or  wet  soil. 

Seeds  lie  over;  seedlings  one  to  two  years  old  are  very  small 
and  tender.  Side  shade  always  liked.  Suffers  from  weeds  and 
grass.     Red  deer  and  Roe  deer  bite  and  beat  it. 

Seeds  kept  in  ditches  over  summer  are  planted  in  fall. 

Use  yearlings  and  plant  in  holes. 

N.  Thuja  plicata:  Desires  good,  fresh  soil,  and  avoids 
swamps. 

Top  shade  or  side  shade  is  well  liked;  do  not  plant  in  open 
ground. 

106 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Deep  root  system. 

Heiglit  growth  slow  to  begin  witli,  rapid  from  seventh  year  on: 

Age     1     year;   height     1       inch. 

Age     5  years;   height     41/2  feet. 

Age  10  years;  height     8       feet. 

Age  15  years;  heiglit  15       feet. 

Age  20  years;  height  23       feet. 

Slow  cleaning  of  bole;  very  dense  thickets  required. 

Seed  bearing  from  fifteenth  year  on. 

Subject  to  damage  by  frost  and  drought  during  first  years. 

Game  does  not  attack  it;  mice  destroy  young  seedlings. 

Seeds  are  planted  broadcast;  slightly  covered  with,  dirt;  shel- 
tered  by   lath   screens. 

Strong  seedlings  three  j'ears  old  (not  transplants)  are  used 
since  the  root  system  is  comparatively  small,  whilst  the  stem  sys- 
tem  is   comparatively   large. 

O.  Tsuga  lieterophylla:  Requires  strong  soil;  demands  side 
shade,  bvit  hates  top  shade.     Cannot   stand   open   situations. 

Root  is  a  strong  tap-root. 

Height  growth  good  from  third  year  on. 

Tips  of  the  top-shoot  are  frequently  killed  by  first  frost,  with- 
out  any   apparent   permanent   damage. 

Use  seedlings  three  years  old,  raised  by  broadcast  sowing. 

Shelter  seed-beds  well.     Avoid  deep  planting. 

Mayr  prefers  heterophylla  to  canadensis  for  planting  in 
Germany. 


Paragraph  XXXIX.     Difficulties  of  natural  seed 
regeneration. 

Theoretical  foresters  frequently  make  the  statement  that  the 
axe  is  the  best  sylvicultural  tool  inasmuch  as  its  proper  use  secures 
a  good  regeneration  free  of  charge.  This  statement  is  misleading.  It 
is  true  that  the  density  of  the  stand  of  the  second  growth  obtain- 
able from  natural  regeneration  is  frequently  better  than  that  ob- 
tained from  artificial  planting.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good  stand 
cannot  be  obtained  but  under  favorable  conditions  and  at  a  great 
increase  of  the  logging  expenses.  While  the  cash  expense  of  natural 
reseeding  might  be  slight,  the  actual  expense  consisting  in  lessened 
receipts  frequently  exceeds  the  expenses  of  artificial  planting.  In 
the  primeval  woods,  additional  difficulties  of  seed  regeneration  in- 
duced by  man  lie  in  the  following  points: 
107 


A  M  E  R  I  C  A  X    S  Y  L  ^'  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

A.  Over-aged   trees   have    poor   seeds. 

B.  Interference  ivith  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  at  once 
invites  danger  from  fire,  increased  by  the  debris  on  the  ground,  and 
bv  the  impossibility  of  battling  against  fires  in  the  underbrush. 

C.  In  the  primeval  forest,  the  age  classes  are  usually  mixed 
in  an  irregular  manner;  uniform  measures  for  reproduction  are 
therefoie  out  of  the  question.  The  forester  cannot  generalize;  he 
must  individualize, — a  very  expensive  procedure  in  the  face  of  low 
stumpage   values. 

D.  The  virgin  forest  usually  contains  a  mixture  of 
species;  the  best  ones  alone  are  removable;  the  weeds  and  the 
worthless  species  are  left  on  the  ground;  and  from  this  fact  arise 
additional  difficulties  in  the  propagation  of  the  most  valuable  kinds. 
To  this  must  be  added  the  difficulty  of  properly  guaging  the  light 
and  the  shade  according  to  the  individualities  of  the  species  mixed. 

E.  The   lack    of   a  permanent   system   of   transportation 

in  America  necessitates  the  operations  to  extend  at  one  stroke  over 
large  areas,  whilst  natural  seed  regeneration  requires  tne  gradual 
removal  of  mother  trees  from  small  and  restricted  areas  in  imitation 
of  nature's   own  way  of  proceeding. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  lack  of  permanent  means  of  transporta- 
tion in  primeval  woods  is  the  most  serious  obstacle  to  the  use  of 
regeneration  from  self-sown  seed  by  a  forester  conscious  of  his  aim 
and  its  effect. 

F.  Natural  seed  regeneration  requires  cutting,  according 
to  the  occurrence  of  seed  years  and  according  to  the  development 
and  the  requirements  of  the  young  growth.  The  axe  therefore 
must  be  independent  from  the  fluctuations  of  market  or  mill  re- 
quirements,— an  impossible  demand  in  the  United  States  at  the 
present  time. 

The  term  "  natural  seed  regeneration "  does  not  preclude  the 
use  of  artificial  help  to  increase  the  cliances  of  regeneration.  The 
term  merely  implies  "  seeding,"  or  scattering  of  seed,  in  the  main 
unaided  by  man.  Man,  however,  may  carefully  prepare  the  seed- 
bed, by  plowing  or  hoeing  or  digging,  or  may  carefully  press  the 
seeds  naturally  fallen  into  the  soil;  and  may  protect  the  seed  and 
the   seedlings,  at  great  pains,   against  external   dangers. 

Little  help  is  given,  where  soil  and  stumpage  are,  and  promise 
to  remain,  of  small  value. 


108 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Under  tlie  reversed  conditions,  the  expense  incurred  for  natural 
regeneration  often  exceeds  that  required   for  artificial  regeneration. 

In  innumerable  cases,  natural  and  artificial  regeneration  are 
locally  and  irregularly  combined. 

It  might  be  claimed  that  the  forest  has  secured  its  own  regen- 
eration through  many  millenia,  and  that  it  will  continue  to  do 
so  unaided  by  human  activity.  Why  then,  it  might  be  asked,  is  it 
necessary  or  advisable  to  now  offer  costly  assistance  in  order  to 
secure  a  natural  reseeding  of  and  in  a  lumbered  tract  of  woodland? 
-«  There  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  nature,  barring  bad  conflagra- 
tions or  heavy  pasturage,  will  start  and  develop  after  lumbering 
some  kind  of  a  second  growth  of  forest.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is 
usually  at  hand,  previous  to  lumbering,  in  an  embryonic  or  incom- 
plete state  waiting  for  the  chance  to  shoot  ahead  after  the  removal 
of  the  older  trees.  This  ready  nucleus,  however,  consists  as  a  rule 
of  inferior  or  worthless  species;  of  specimens  crippled  by  fire,  by 
the  fall  (accidental  or  otherwise)  of  nearby  trees,  by  the  logger's 
axe  or  foot,  by  passing  teams  and  loads,  etc.  In  addition,  many 
members  of  that  nucleus  will  die  when  suddenly  bereaved  of  the 
shelter  (against  drought,  cold,  hail,  etc.),  previously  exercised  by 
the  old  trees  now  removed. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  a  crop  of  weeds  usually  follows 
in  the  field  after  the  harvest  of  valuable  wheat;  in  the  forest 
after  the  harvest  of  valuable  timber. 

Such  "weeds"  are  unable  to  secure  for  the  owner  of  the  land 
a  sufficient  rate  of  interest  on  the  value  of  the  soil  and  an  adequate 
reimbursement  of  the  taxes  due  on  the  soil. 

Another  point  worthy  of  attention  lies  in  the  poor  chances 
which  a  grain  of  seed  stands,  in  nature's  economy,  to  develop  into 
a  seedling,  sapling,  pole  and  tree.  The  probability  is  that  but  one 
grain  of  seed — out  of  millions  of  grains — produced  by  an  individual 
tree  during  its  lifetime  succeeds  in  reaching  tree  size,  replacing  its 
progenitor  on  the  forest  floor.  The  ecologic  incidents  bringing  about 
this  result  are  far  from  being  clearly  understood.  Still,  it  must  be 
the  sylviculturist's  aim  to  provide  for  these  incidents,  if  he  desires 
to  replace  the  old  crop,  removed  at  an  unnatural  rate  of  rapidity, 
at  an  equally  fast  rate  by  an  offspring  resulting  from  self-sown 
seed. 

If  the  forester  were  satisfied  to  merely  remove  nature's  mori- 
bimds,  then  he  might  get  along  with  a  purely  natural  regeneration, 
entirely  unaided  by  human  skill. 


109 


A  ]M  ERIC  AN    SYLVICULTURE 

As  soon,  however,  as  his  axe  creates  in  the  forest  an  unnatural 
■rate  of  deatli,  the  forester  is  compelled  to  also  secure,  by  intelligent 
means,  a   supernatural  rate  of  birth. 

Human  aid  to  natural  regeneration  should  be  denied  where: 

a.  The  danger  from  forest  fire  is  such  as  to  render  investments 
in  a  second  growth  very  unsafe. 

b.  An  outlay  incurred  for  protection  from  fire  is  not  apt  to  be 
refunded  with  interest  by  the  value  of  the   second  growth. 

That  much  aid  and  that  much  money  should  be,  in  all  other 
■  cases,  spent  for  the  pvirpose  of  regeneration  as  promises,  in  the 
-owner's  mind  and  according  to  the  forester's  forecast,  the  highest 
relative  revenue  on  the  investments  made. 

The  owner  of  timberland,  intending  to  secure  a  second  growth 
where  he  removes  the  first,  might  set  aside  a  certain  percentage 
of  the  net  receipts  obtained  from  stumpage  annually  cut, — say  ten 
per  cent, — for  the  purpose  of  raising,  by  one  means  or  another,  the 
second  growth  desired  by  him.  Continuity  of  action  is  the  main- 
spring of  forest  conservation.  Sylviculture  cannot  be  practised 
off  and'  on.  Regular  appropriations  are  required  to  secure  regular 
results. 

Sylviculture  and  finance  are  continuously  at  loggerheads.  From 
the  business  standpoint,  however,  that  Sylviculture  is  certainly  best 
which  proves  lastingly  most  remunerative. 

Where  and  as  long  as  the  prospective  value  of  seedlings  is 
small,  none  but  a  small  expense  can  be  reasonably  incurred  on 
behalf  of  their  propagation. 

Again,  seedlings  are  more  endangered  by  fire  than  trees.  Where, 
.-and  as  long  as  the  danger  from  fire  prevails  in  the  forests  of  the 
United  States,  investments  made  for  raising  seedlings  are  so  risky 
as  to  be  inadvisable. 


3*ara^raph  XL.    A^e  of  trees  fit  for  natural  seed 
regeneration  (enesar). 

The  age  of  perfect  puberty  depends  on  species,  density  of 
stand,  quality  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  Generally  speaking, 
it  lies  about  the  eightieth  year  of  flie  trees. 

Birch,  Alder,  Larch  and  Yellow  Pines  may  be  seed-regenerated 
from  their  twenty-fifth  to  thirtieth  year  on;  Oaks,  Beeches  and 
Firs  from  their  sixtieth  to  eightieth  year  on.  Trees  of  very  old 
age,  say  over  200  years  old,  often  defy  natural  regeneration  if 
^occurring  in  pure,  even-aged  stands. 
110 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Paragraph  XLI.     Types  of  natural  seed  regen- 
eration   (enesar). 

A  fixed  method  is  applicable  in  tlie  ai'ts  only  where  a  fixed  set 
of  conditions  exists.  Fixed  and  regular  forms  exist  in  primeval 
woods  but  rarely.  Hence  the  impossibility,  from  a  sylvicultural 
standpoint,  to  adopt  any  fixed  European  "  method "  of  seed  regen- 
eration for  direct  application  in  American  practice. 

There  might  be  distinguished,  nevertheless,  within  all  woods 
on  the  globe,  certain  distinct  and  characteristic  "  tricks  "  or  aggre- 
gates of  characteristic  qualities  and  influences  typical  for  the  spot 
on  which  they  are  found,  by  which  Nature  secures,  with  or  without 
Man's  co-operation,  a  local  rejuvenescence  of  the  forest.  These 
tricks — not  methods  or  systems — had  best  be  called  "  types  of  regen- 
eration:" Typical  conditions  are  used  to  produce  typical  effects. 

The  word  "  enesar "  is  used  in  lieu  of  n.  s.  r.,  or  in  lieu  of 
"  natural  seed  regeneration." 

The  types  of  enesar,  like  the  types  of  animal  breeds,  or  of 
machines,  may  be  scrutinized  from  various  viewpoints.  We  might 
differentiate  them: 

A.  According  to  the  relative  position  of  old  and  new 
gro'wtli; 

I.  The   young  growth   develops   underneath   the   old   growth: 

a.  Whilst  the  old  growth  is  left  intact  (natural  seed  regenera- 
tion by  advance  growth),  or 

b.  Whilst  the  old  growth  is  gradually  reduced  (natural  seed 
regeneration  under  shelter  woods). 

II.  The  young  growth  develops  at  the  side  of  the  old  growth 
(natural  seed  regeneration  from  adjoining  timber). 

B.  According  to  the  size  of  the  units  of  regeneration, 
Ttrhich  may  be: 

I.  Compartments,  i.  e.,  a  cove,  a  slope,  a  top  or  a  coherent 
part  thereof,  comprising  from  ten  to  one  hundred  acres. 

II.  Strips,  i.  e.,  figures  of  a  more  or  less  rectangular  form,  in 
which  the  length  is  a  multiple  of  the  breadth,  the  latter  not  ex- 
ceeding 500  feet. 

III.  Groups,  i.  e.,  aggregates  of  growth  of  a  more  or  less  cir- 
cular form,  covering  0.1  to  4  acres. 

IV.  Patches,  i.  e.,  areas  covered  by  the  crown  of  an  individual 
tree,  about  0.01  acre  in  extent. 

The  figures  are  meant  to  illustrate,  and  are  not  meant  to 
define  (in  this  paragraph  as  well  as  in  the  following  fifteen  para- 
graphs). Ill 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

C.  According  to  the   degree   in   ivliicli   tlie   soil   and   the 
youngest  seedlings   are   directly   exposed  to  the   sky: 

I.  Regeneration  without  exposure, — by  advance  growth. 

II.  Regeneration    with    short,    slight,    partial    exposure, — under 
shelterwood. 

III.  Regeneration   with  entire,  heavy  exposure, — from  adjoining 
timber. 

D.  According     to     the     timing     of     lumbering     and     of 
reseeding: 

I.  Lumbering  precedes  reseeding, — natural  seed  regeneration  on 
clearings,  namely: 

a.  On    vmiformly    cleared    compartments    (cleared    compartment 
type) ; 

b.  On  cleared  strips   (cleared  strip  type) ; 

c.  On  cleared  groups   (cleai-ed  group  type) ; 

d.  On  cleared  selected  patches  (cleared  selection  type). 

II.  Lumbering  coincides  with  reseeding, — natural  seed  regenera- 
tion under  shelterwood,  namely: 

a.  On  uniformly  sheltered  compartments   (shelterwood  compart- 
ment type) ; 

h.  On  sheltered  strips    (shelterwood  strip  type); 
c.  On  sheltered  groups    (shelterwood  group  type); 
•    d.  On   sheltered   selected   patches    (shelterwood   selection   type). 

III.  Lumbering  follows  reseeding, — natural  seed  regeneration  by 
advance  growth,  namely: 

a.  With    advance    growth    all    over    a    compartment     (advance 
growth   compartment  type) ; 

b.  With  advance  growth  in  strips   (advance  growth  strip  type)  ; 

c.  With  advance  growth  in  groups  (advance  growth  group  type) ; 

d.  With   advance   growth   in   selected   patches    (advance   growth 
selection  type). 

E.  According    to    the    participation    of    ligneous    weeds 

(bushes,  seedlings,  saplings,  poles  and  trees  of  a  negative  value)   in 
the  regeneration: 

Totally   successful   seed  regeneration; 

Groupwise  successful  seed  regeneration; 

Patchwise  successful  seed  regeneration; 

Individually  successful  seed  regeneration; 

Unsuccessful  seed  regeneration. 

In  America,  it  will  be  frequently  advisable  for  the  forester  to 

112 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

merely    work    toward    a    "  groupwise "    or    "  pateliwise "    successful 
seed  regeneration. 

F.  According  to  the  number  and  according  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  standards  left  in  tlie  regeneration  "area":  Natural 
seed  regeneration: 

a.  With  standards  systematically  left  all  over  the  compart- 
ments ; 

b.  With  standards  left  in  strips; 

c.  With  standards  left  in  groups; 

d.  With  isolated  scattering  standards. 

The  "  compartment "  types  had  better  be  called  "  uniform " 
types ;  the  "  selection  "  types  had  better  be  termed  "  patch  "  types. 
Still  the  terms  "  Shelterwood  compartment  system "  and  "  shelter- 
wood  selection  system"  having  become  standard  terms  of  forestal 
terminology,  it  seems  unwise  to  throw  them  aside. 

A  number  of  "  pure  types  "  may  be,  and  usually  are,  combined 
into  "  bastard  types."  Of  course,  only  types  more  closely  related 
allow  of  bastardizing. 

Bastard  types  frequently  found  in  the  old  country  are: 

"Advance   growth   selection"   and   "shelterwood   group"   type; 

"  Advance  growth  group "  and  "  shelterwood  compartment " 
type; 

"Shelterwood  group"  and  "shelterwood  strip"  type; 

"  Cleared  strip  "  and  "  advance  growth  strip  "  type ; 

"  Cleared  group  "  and  "  shelterwood  group  "  type ; 

"  Cleared   selection  "  and  "  shelterwood  group  "  type. 

Modern  forestry  abroad  begins  to  despise  methodical  rules, 
gradually  returning  to  nature  with  her  irregularities.  Pure, 
abstract  types  of  seed  regeneration  are  more  and  more  discarded. 

The  selection  of  a  method  or  a  combination  of  methods  depends 
entirely  upon  the  composition  of  the  growing  stock  found;  on  local 
dangers;  on  local  means  of  transportation;  on  value  of  stumpage 
and  prospective  value  of  seedlings. 

Wliere  all  age  classes  are  mixed  irregularly,  individual  selec- 
tion is,  ceteris  paribus,  indicated. 

Wliere  the  age  classes  or  the  species  appear  in  groups,  the 
group  method  is  or  may  be  advisable. 

In  woods  simultaneously  maturing,  the  uniform  type  may 
recommend  itself. 

G.  H.  S.  Graves,  in  "  Tbe  principles  of  handling  wood- 
lands "  distinguishes  between  the  following  "  systems  " — he  does  not 
use  the  term  type — of  natural  seed  regeneration: 

113 


a:\ierican  sylviculture 

I.  The  selection  system  applicable  to  stands  in  which  trees  of 
all  ages  are  represented. 

II.  The  clear-cutting  system: 

a.  Clear- cutting  the  whole  stand  (Schenck's  cleared  compart- 
ment type). 

b.  Clear-cutting  up  to  75-85%  of  the  area,  but  leaving  intact, 
in  large  blocks  up  to  25-15%  respectively  of  the  original  stand. 

c.  Reserving  scattered  seed  trees. 

d.  Reserving  groups  of  seed  trees. 

e.  Reserving  thrifty  standards. 

f.  Clear-cutting  in  strips    (Schenck's  cleared  strip  type). 

g.  Clear-cutting  in  patches    (Schenck's  cleared  patch  type). 

III.  The  shelterwood  system: 

a.  Cuttings  distributed  uniformly  (Schenck's  shelterwood  com- 
partment type). 

b.  Cutting  in  groups   (Schenck's  shelterwood  group  type). 

c.  Cutting  in  strips   (Schenck's  shelterwood  strip  type). 

The  systems  (viz.,  types)  enumerated  under  II.  a.,  b.,  c,  d., 
and  e.,  cannot  be  considered  to  be  a  means  by  wiiich  the  forest 
may  be  "  systematically  "  reproduced. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  arranged  to  conform  with  the 
view  point  given  under  "D." 


Paragraph  XLII.    Types  in  which  lumbering  pre- 
cedes N.  S.  R. 

Where  lumbering  precedes  regeneration,  the  area  lumbered  must 
be  reseeded  from  the  borders  of  adjoining  woods.  With  increasing 
size  of  the  area  cleared  of  timber,  the  rapidity,  the  certainty  and 
the  quality  of  regeneration  rapidly  decrease.  The  fact  that  such 
regeneration  is  possible  on  a  large  scale,  is  readily  proven  by  object 
lessons  in  the  primeval  woods  (Long  Leaf  Pine;  Bald  Cypress; 
Lodgepole  line;  Douglas  Fir)  as  well  as  in  second-growth  forests 
(Wrhite  Pine  in  Lake  States;  Yellow  Pine  in  the  south;  Spruce  in 
the  Karpathian   Mountains). 

The  chances  for  success  depend  on: 

A.  The  species,  which  must  have  light  or  winged  seeds  readily 
carried  about  by  the  wind  (many  Pines,  Spruces,  Larches,  Cotton- 
woods,  Birches,  Yellow  Poplar),  and  which  must  not  require,  during 
their  earliest  stages  of  development,  the  presence  of  a  shelterwood 
overhead.  114 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

B.  The  coincidence  of  the  compass  diiection  in  which  the 
clearing  lies  from  tlie  adjoining  woods,  with  the  direction  of  the 
wind  preferably  ojiening  the  cones  and  carrying  the  seed. 

C.  The  local  danger  from  storm  which  might  tear  down, 
gradually  at  least,  the  adjoining  seed  trees. 

D.  The  condition  of  the  cleared  soil  and  its  quality  as  a 
ready  seed-bed,  influenced  by  the  presence  of  weeds;  by  the  de- 
composition of  the  humus;  by  the  degree  in  which  the  mineral 
soil  has  been  laid  bare  in  the  course  of  logging  operations;  by  the 
grade  of  the  slope. 

E.  Fires  favorable  or  unfavorable;  pasture  favorable 
or  unfavorable  to  regeneration,  as  the  case  may  be. 

F.  The  frequency  of  seed  years,  and  the  possibility  of 
lumbering  during  a   seed  year. 

G.  The  size,  the  form  and  the  environments  of  the  area 
cut  over. 

H.  The    possibility    of    preventing    undesirable    species 

(Gums,  Black  Jack  Oak)  and  undesirable  specimens,  like  low- 
branched  weed  trees  and  spreading  "wolves,"  from  occupying  the 
area  to  be  regenerated,  and  the  possibility  of  regenerating  all,  a 
few,  or  only  one  species. 

According  to  the  size  of  the  clearing,  we  distinguish  between: 

The  cleared  compartment  type   (large  areas  cleared)  ; 

The  cleared  strip  type    (narrow  belts  cleared)  ; 

The  cleared  group  type  (fair  sized  groups  cleared  away); 

The  cleared  selection  type  (small  bunches  of  trees  or  merely 
single  trees  cut). 


Paragraph   XLIII.      The    cleared    compartment 
type. 

A.  The  area  bared  at  one  stroke  by  lumbering  comprises 
between,  say,  ten  and  one  hundred  acres.  If  the  width  of  the 
clearing  is  less  than  500  feer.,  the  "cleared  strip"  type  is  reached. 
If  the  acreage  cleared  is  much  in  excess  of  100  acres,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  second  growth  is  very  slow,  very  poor,  very  doubtful, 
so  that  the  character  of  a  sylvicultural  type  is  lost.  A  number 
(say  five)  of  seed  years  are  required  to  restock  the  ground.  The 
bordering  woods,  from  which  reseeding  is  expected,  must  not  offer 
an  unprotected  front  to  the  prevailing  storm  direction. 
115 


AMERICAX    SYLVICULTURE 

The  regeneration  obtained  is,  naturally,  very  heterogeneous  and 
contains  a  great  deal  of  misshapen  advance  growth  as  well  as  of 
weed  growth. 

Weeds  trees  left  on  the  ground  might  be  girdled  if  belonging 
to  an  undesirable  species    (Beech  in  Galizia). 

A  few  seed  trees  might  be  left  scatteringly  (if  Avind  firm)  in 
groups  or  in  strips,  preferably  close  to  the  roads,  also  doty  speci- 
mens without  any  value. 

An  usher  growth  of  Cottonwoods,  Birches,  Sumac,  Locust, 
Sassafras,  etc.,  frequently  precedes  the  second  growth  desired  on  the 
ground. 

Fires  preceding  the  seeding,  and  immediately  in  the  wake  of 
logging,  greatly  enhance  the  success  of  Yellow  Pines,  Douglas  Fir, 
etc.  Yellow  Poplar,  on  the  other  hand,  is  checked  by  the  heavy 
growth  of  weeds  following  tires.  Stock  pasture  is  of  advantage, 
where  it  presses  the   seeds  into  the   soil,  and  where  it  checks   the 


The  clearing  should  comprise,  if  possible,  only  one  side  of  a 
cove  at  a  time  or  the  lower  part  of  a  slope  or  the  bottom  of  a 
cove,  so  as  to  allow  of  greater  ease  in  reseeding. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  has  been  adopted, — not 
confessedly  but  actually — by  the  Austrian  Government  in  dealing 
with  the  primeval  woods  of  Galizia,  consisting  of  Beech,  Fir  and 
Spruce. 

The  United  States  Forest  Service  has  tried  to  adopt  it  in 
modified  form  under  the  name  "  single  tree  method  "  for  the  Minne- 
sota National  Forest  and  in  the  majority  of  its  business-working 
plans  (Sawyer  and  Austin;  Weyerhiiuser). 

Thousands  of  acres  of  abandoned  farm  land  all  over  the  Eastern 
States  have  been  reforested  in  this  manner,  usually  in  pines,  fre- 
quently against  the  owner's  will. 

C.  Advantages:  The  cleared  compartment  type  shows  the 
following  advantages : 

I.  Greatest  ease  in  lumbering. 

IL  Concentrated  operations  and  concentrated  supervisio.i. 

III.  Few  permanent  main  links  of  transportation  required. 

IV.  Smallest  deviation  from  the  old-time  manner  of  destruc- 
tive lumbering. 

V.  Possibility  of  temporary  use  of  the  clearing  for  the  pro- 
duction of  field  crops  benefited  by  the  fertilizing  eff'ect  of  the 
humus. 

116 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

VI.  Ease  of  artificial  reinforcing  and  possibility  of  soil  prepara- 
tion by  plowing  and  by  firing;   of  covering  the  seeds  by  pasturage. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Applicability  to  few  species  only. 

II.  Danger  of  partial  or  complete  failure,  especially  in  clearings 
covering  100  or  more  acres,  or  in  case  of  border  trees  unfavorably 
situated. 

III.  Danger  from  heavy  fires  where  the  soil  and  the  hvimus  is 
baked  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  with  heaps  of  debris  left  on  the 
ground  after  wholesale  logging. 

IV.  Second  growth  consists  largely  of  wolves,  and  of  spreading 
advance  growth  and  of  poles  undesirably  ramified.  Expensive  gird- 
ling or  cutting  of  seed-bearing  weed  trees,  belonging  to  a  worthless 
species. 

V.  The  annual  expenses  for  protection  from  fire  and  for  taxes 
are,  to  a  degree,  independent  of  the  quality  of  the  young  growth. 
They  are  relatively  high,  and  hence  absurdly  unbearable,  if  that 
growth  is  poor,  straggling  and  very  slow  to  develop,  all  of  which 
is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  this  type  of  seed  regeneration. 

Thirty  years  after  clearing,  the  average  age  of  the  young 
growth  is  not  apt  to  exceed  ten  years. 

Soil  values  exceeding  ten  dollars — so  as  to  give  a  figure — per 
acre  would  make  a  second  growth  expensive  when  thus  slowly 
produced. 

VI.  Groups  of  advance  growth  are  almost  sure  to  be  destroyed 
or  to  be  crippled  by  logging  and  by  sudden  change  of  environments 
(e.  g.,  INIaple  and  Beech  in  Michigan). 


Paragraph  XLIV.     The  cleared  strip  type. 

A.  The  width  of  the  cleared  strip  is  from  two  to  five  times 
the  length  of  the  mother  ti'ee.  When  one  belt  is  seeded  suc- 
cessfully, another  strip  is  cut  into  the  timber  alongside  the  first 
belt,   and   so   on. 

Soil  work  is  not  required,  provided  the  strip  is  cleared  in  a 
seed  year.  Usually  the  soil  is  torn  up  sufficiently  by  the  removal 
of  a  large  number  of  logs  snaked  or  rolled  or  shot  along  the 
strip  and  over  the  strip  to  ihe  nearest  road. 

One  seed  year  is  rarely  sufficient  to  secure  full  regeneration  of 
a  strip.  In  the  Alps,  Pine  regeneration  takes  from  twelve  to  thirty 
years.  On  hardwood  soil,  the  weeds  are  to  be  dreaded,  preeminently 
so  on  fertile  ground  after  fires. 

117 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

It  is  wise  to  leave  a  few  wind-fiim  mother  trees  scattered  over 
the  strip,  notably  immature  specimens  ot  the  most  desirable  species. 
Less  desii-able  species  on  the  nearby  border  might  be  girdled  or 
removed  by  extending  the  removal  of  that  species  into  the  bordering 
forest.  In  addition,  valuable  hypermature  trees  might  be  with- 
drawn from  the  nearby  forest. 

The  cleared  strip  type  does  not  require  a  permanent  system  of 
transportation  of  great  intricacy,  the  strips  themselves  forming 
the  main  lines  of  transportation.  The  narrow  edge  of  the  strip 
merely  is  touched,  on  the  valley  side,  by  a  road.  According  to  the 
grade  of  the  strip,  sleighs,  cables,  chutes,  donkey  engines,  etc., 
are  used  to  deliver  the  logs  to  the  road. 

At  the  beginning  of  operations,  the  first  strip  should  be  made 
in  sheltered  localities  so  as  to  allow  the  forest  adjoining  leewards 
to  remain  unharmed  by  storm. 

The  strips  proceed  windwards  gradually,  the  next  being  cleared 
when  regeneration  in  the  preceding  strip  is  fully  secured. 

North  of  the  equator,  the  cuttings  should  proceed  from  the 
North  to  the  South  (Professor  Wagner's  discovery),  since  enesar 
is  most  successful  on  the  north  side  of  the  forest.  In  case  of  species 
subject  to  windfall,  the  progress  of  the  axe  should  be  directed 
from  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W. 

The  danger  from  insects  and  fungi  is  small.  The  danger  from 
fire,  to  begin  with,  is  great,  although  not  so  great  as  in  large 
clearings  to  which  tlie  wind  and  sun  are  freely  admitted.  Later  on 
the  even-aged  character  of  the  strip  will  help  to  check  fires. 

Nothing  prevents  the  owner  from  reinforcing  the  strip  arti- 
ficially if  he  thinks  fit.  Healthy  groups  of  advance  growth,  formed 
by  desirable  species  in  the  belt  at  the  time  of  logging,  might  be 
carefully  husbanded.  Natural  regeneration  will  set  in  as  well  at 
the  side  of  the  belt  underneath  the  bordering  mother  trees.  "Re- 
generation runs  into  the  old  woods."  This  is  a  very  desirable  state 
of  affairs  allowing,  in  the  next  belts,  regeneration  to  start  in 
advance  of  cutting.  (Bastardizing  the  cleared  strip  type  with  the 
advance  growth  strip  type.) 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  of  regeneration  is  locally 
used  in  the  Tyrolian  and  Austrian  Alps,  for  Spruce,  Larch,  Pine. 
The  form  of  the  strips  need  not  be  rectangular.  It  depends  on 
maturity  of  growth,  configuration  of  soil,  danger  from  storm.  The 
tj'pe  seems  well  adapted  to  present  American  conditions,  requiring, 
of  course,  local  modifications   or  bastardations,  governed  by  species 

118 


THE   ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

and   market.     Its  applicability,  however,  rests   on  the  existence   of 
some  permanent  chief  arteries  of  transportation. 

At  Biltmore,  the  type  is  applied,  in  modified  form,  for  the 
reproduction  of  Yellow  Poplar  and   Yellow  Pine. 

C.  Advantages  of  the  cleared  strip  type: 

I.  Applicability  to  many  species,  to  many  conditions  and  to 
many   localities. 

II.  Concentration  of  logging  operations;  sylvicultural  help  possi- 
ble;  cheap  logging  by  donkey  engines,  chutes,  snaking,  etc. 

III.  Many  points  of  attack,  at  which  the  season's  cut  might 
be  obtained,  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  forester,  if  he  so  desires. 
Hence  great  freedom  of  action. 

IV.  Comparative  safety  of  the  old  woods  from  storm;  of  the 
young  growth  from  fire,  drought,  frost,  insects,  etc. 

D.  Disadvantages  of  the  cleared  strip  type: 

I.  If  the  seeding  of  the  strip  is  not  effected  soon  after  clear- 
ing, the  soil  is  baked  by  the  sun,  weeds  are  started  and  the 
ecological  conditions  are  afi'ected  in  a  manner  barring  the  success 
of  seed  regeneration  and  necessitating   artificial  help. 

II.  Border  trees  are  exposed  to  sun  scald. 

III.  Animals  frequent  the  strips  and  spoil  the  young  growth. 

IV.  The  soil  of  the  strip — especially  of  the  first  strip  in  a 
series — is  rarely  "  in  heat,"  certainly  not  over  the  entire  strip, 
so  that  the  seeds  falling  upon  it  have  a  poor  chance  of  success. 
This  is  the  case,  preeminently,  in  the  humid  mountains  where  a 
heavy  layer  of  raw  humus  covers  the  ground.  A  large  number  of 
years  will  often  elapse,  before  the  next  adjoining  strip  can  be 
taken  in  hand. 

V.  The  strips  should  be  cut  where  the  timber  is  most  mature 
at  the  time, — and  not  in  a  succession  merely  dependent  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  yoiuig  growth  and  on  the  necessity  of  proceeding 
against   the  prevailing   storm  direction. 


Paragraph  XLV.     The  cleared  ^roup  type. 

A.  The  groups  cut  comprise  from  0.1  acre  to  four  acres. 

The  form  is  roundish,  oval,  square,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  usually 
coinciding  with  a  geological  feature,  e.  g.,  a  dell,  a  spur,  a  spring- 
head. 

The  incentive  for  group-cutting  lies  either  in  the  simultaneous 
maturity   of   the   trees   stocking  on  it,   or  in   the   desire   to   obtain 
conditions  particularly  favorable  to  the  reproduction  of  one  of  the 
119 


AMERICAN     S  Y  L  \  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

species  appearing  in  the  old  timber;  or  the  group,  previously  stocked 
with  an  undesirable  species,  is  to  be  seeded  by  a  better  kind. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  has  never  played  an  im- 
portant role  in  connection  with  natural  seed  regeneration.  Sylvi- 
culturally  it  seems  well  adapted  to  Yellow  Poplar,  Long  Leaf  Pine, 
Lodgepole  Pine,  White  Pine,  also  to  Hickory,  Hard  Maple  and  Oak. 

Where  the  groups  have  the  shape  of  long  tongues,  running 
parallel  at  regular  intervals,  they  are  tei'med  "coulisses."  The 
coulisses  are  usually  meant  for  the  regeneration  of  more  light- 
demanding  species ;  the  "  benches  "  separating  the  coulisses  for  the 
regeneration  of  more  shade -bearing  species. 

In  Germany,  the  space  formerly  occupied  by  a  cleared  group 
is  termed  a  "  hole."  Such  holes  are  made  frequently  by  storm,  or 
by  snow  and  sleet.  Where  the  groups,  after  reseeding,  are  gradu- 
ally enlarged,  the  cleared  group-type  is  bastardized  with  the  shel- 
terwood  group  type. 

C.  Advantages:  The  soil  of  the  group,  thanks  to  a  sufficient 
amotuit  of  side  shade,  retains  its  freshness  and  porosity.  It  is 
sheltered  from  severe  winds  and  severe  heat.  Species  too  sensitive 
for  reproduction  in  larger  clearings  or  strips  can  be  raised  in 
groups.  Wliere  the  age  classes  appear  in  bunches,  each  bunch  can 
be  harvested  at  its  proper  age  of  maturity.  No  harm  or  little  harm 
is  done  to  young  growth  during  the  logging  season. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Operations  are  scattering. 

II.  Intricate  system  of  permanent  roads  required. 

III.  Groups  surrounded  by  tall  timber  frequently  act  as  "  frost- 
holes  "  where  yoiuig  growth  suffers  badly  from  early  frosts  and 
late  frosts  in  clear  nights. 

IV.  Thin  barked  trees  surroiuiding  the  group,  and  notably  those 
standing  at  its  northeasterly  margin,  suffer  from  sun  scald;  flat- 
rooted  trees  suffer  from  storm. 


Paragraph  XLVI.     The  cleared  selection  type. 

A.  In  this  type,  individual  trees  considered  matiu'e  are 
selected  for  removal,  eitlier  absolutely  singly,  or  in  very  small 
patches  formed  by  neighboring  trees. 

The  clearings  made  are  so  small  that  only  shade -bearing  species 
will  regenerate  thereon,  unless  tlie  soil  be  particularly  strong. 
120 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

The  cut  is  so  scattering,  that  the  soil  is  not  sufficiently 
"  plowed  "  by  the  loggers.  Hence  it  will  not  act  as  a  ready  seed-bed 
(excei)ting  the  logging  roads). 

In  mixed  woods  composed  of  many  species,  only  the  most 
valuable  kind  is  usually  withdrawn,  and  the  small  gaps  made  are 
occupied  by  shade-bearing  and  often  less  valuable  species. 

Beneath  hypermature  trees,  the  soil  has  frequently  hardened 
and  defies  any  attempt  of  seedlings  to  establish  themselves  after 
logging. 

The  cleared  selection  type  is  almost  invariably  bastardized  with 
the  shelterwood  selection  type  and  with  the  advance  growth  selec- 
tion type. 

B.  Actual  application: 

In  the  tropics,  Teak,  Mahogany,  Ebony,  etc.,  are  cut  by  selec- 
tion, frequently  regardless  of  the  ettect  which  logging  will  have 
on  regeneration. 

In  Europe,  the  type  is  found  in  the  Fir  forests  owned  by  farm- 
ers; in  parks;  in  protective  forests  at  the  headwaters  of  rivers; 
on  very  steep  slopes  dotted  with  Larch,  in  the  Tyrol. 

In  America,  Yellow  Poplar,  Walnut,  Cherry,  White  Oak,  etc., 
are  cut  by  way  of  individual  selection, — but  with  no  regard  to 
reproduction.  Also  White  Pine  in  the  Spruce  and  Fir  woods  of  the 
Adirondacks  (also  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  Michigan)  where 
it  never  succeeds,  withdrawn'  alone,  to  reproduce  its  kind. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  water-storing  power  of  the  soil  is  generally  Avell  pre- 
served imder  this  type. 

II.  The  second  growth  is  never  endangered  by  snow  or  drought 
or  frost  or  sleet;  the  old  trees  remaining  do  not  suffer  from  storm 
or  sun  scald. 

III.  Small  wood  lots  may  yield  a  steady  annual  supply  of 
timber  or  wood  under  this  type.  ' 

'IV.  The  type  is  well  adapted  to  parks. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  operations  are  very  scattering.  Indeed,  they  cover  con- 
tinuously the  entire  forest  or  a  large  percentage  thereof.  Diffi- 
culty of  supervision.  Destruction  of  small  trees  unavoidable  on 
slopes. 

II.  An  intricate  system  of  permanent  roads  is  required,  since 
the  axe  returns  every  few  j'ears  to  the  same  compartment.  If  the 
intervals    of   years   are    long — say   from   ten   to    twenty   years — the 

121 


AMEEICAX    SYLVICULTURE 

type  is  bastardized  with  the  cleared  group  type  or  with  the  shelter- 
wood  group  tj'pe, 

IIL  The  type  as  a  means  of  regeneration,  in  its  purity,  is  possi- 
ble only  where 

a.  The  compartments  contain  a  mixture  of  all  age  classes, 
with  the  hypermature  classes  not  too  badly  prevailing; 

b.  The  species  to  be  regenerated  is  an  intense  shade-bearer; 

c.  The  soil  is  strong  enough  to  allow  light-demanding  seedlings 
a  chance  at  surviving  a  long  period  of  partial  suppression. 

IV.  The  species  removed — presumably  the  most  valuable  species 
— has  its  prospects  of  propagating  reduced,  struggling  against  com- 
peting species,  the  nvmiber  of  its  seed  trees  being  relatively 
decreased. 

V.  Small  chance  for  reinforcing. 

VI.  Impossibility  of  protection  against  fires  under  headway. 


Paragraph  XLVII.     Types    in    which   lumbering 
coincides   with  N.    S.    R. 

In  these  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration — so-called  shelter- 
wood  types — lumbering  and  reseeding  go  hand  in  hand,  both  pro- 
gressing seriatim,  slowly,  cautiously.  In  the  pure  types,  no  tree  is 
removed,  unless  the  removal  has  a  distinct  bearing — or  is  expected 
to  have  it — on  the  production  of  a  progeny  or  on  its  further  develop- 
ment. Seedlings  less  than  hve  years  old  usually  stand  within  a 
few  yards  of  their  mothers.  This  distance  is  gradually  increased — 
in  the  course  of  up  to  fifty  years — until  the  youngsters  do  not 
require  any  more,  or  rather  despise,  the  benefit  of  the  parents' 
presence. 

Lumbering  operations  are  carried  on — in  one  and  the  same 
limited  lot — during  a  number  of  years. 

Where  the  mother  trees  are  very  rapidly  removed,  after  re- 
seeding,  from  the  proximity  of  the  youngsters,  the  shelterwood 
types  approach  the  types  of  cleared  compartments,  cleared 
strips,  etc. 

Where  the  mother  trees  are  very  slowly  removed,  after  reseed- 
ing, from  the  proximity  of  the  youngster,  the  shelterwood  types 
approach,  or  bastardize  with,  the  advance  growth  types. 

A.  The  chances  for  success  depend  on: 

I.  Sylvicultural    talents    of   the    forester   in   charge    and   of   his 
staff,  also  on  the  size  of  the  ranges. 
122 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

II.  Frequency  of  seed  years  and  time  allowed  for  the  entire 
operations. 

III.  Shade-bearing  character  of  youngsters  and  firmness  of 
parents. 

IV.  Existence  of  a  permanent   system   of  transportation. 

V.  Configvuation. 

VI.  Danger  from  storm,  sleet,  fire,  animals,  etc.,  locally  existing. 

VII.  Size  of  timber,  value  of  timber,  percentage  of  debris  and 
waste. 

VIII.  Marketability  of  all  species  or  of  a  few,  even  of  one 
species   only. 

B.  According  to  the  manner  in  \irliicli  the  forester^ 
selects  the  nuclei  for  reseeding,  we  distinguish  the  following 
types : 

I.  Uniform  type,  or  pure  shelterwood  compartment  type,  where 
the  nuclei  are  geometrically  and  regularly  distributed  over  the 
entirety  of  a  large  area  (say  over  twenty  to  two  hundred  acres), 
the  nuclei  of  the  entire  area  being  kept,  during  the  entire  progress 
of  regeneration,  in  or  about  in  the  same  uniform  stage  of 
development. 

II.  Shelterwood  strip  type,  where  the  nuclei  proceed,  like  ad- 
vancing skirmishers,  in  regular  military  order  either  from  the  lee- 
Avard  side  to  the  windward  side  of  a  compartment  (cove,  slope,  etc.), 
or  else  from  the  North  towards  the  South  (Wagner).  The  nuclei 
to  the  leeward  viz.,  northward  are  kept  in  a  more  advanced  stage 
of  growth  than  those  to  the  windward  viz.,  southwai-d. 

III.  Shelterwood  group  type,  where  the  nuclei  are  carefully 
selected,  irrespective  of  geometrical  arrangements,  merely  on  the 
basis  of  the  fitness  of  the  individual  spot  to  act  as  a  seed-bed.  The 
groups  are  gradually  enlarged,  increasing  in  circumference  like 
waves  caused  by  stones  thrown  in  the  water. 

IV.  Shelterwood  selection  type,  where  the  most  mature  indi- 
viduals are  everywhere  in  all  compartments  and  continuously  se- 
lected for  removal,  individually  or  in  small  patches,  with  a  view  tO' 
the  simultaneous  reproduction  of  the  species  removed  by  seeds  left 
on  such  patches.  The  patch  does  not  form  a  nucleus  to  be  en- 
larged; it  is  to  be  retained  for  a  long  time  in  its  original  size. 

In    primeval    nature,    the    shelter,    or    else    the    soil    conditions 

created  by  a  sheltering  superstruction  for  the  benefit  of  the  under- 

structure,   are   secured   frequently   in   connection  with   a   change   of 

species.     The  understruclure  requires  a  fostermother,  rather  than  a. 

123 


A  il  E  R  I  C  A  X     SYLVICULTURE 

mother,  for  its  best  development.  Spruce  under  Fire  Clierry,  White 
Pine  imder  Cottonwood,  Engelmanns  Spruce  under  Aspen  are  ex- 
amples  for  this  phenomenon. 


Paragraph  XLVIII.     The  shelterwood  compart- 
ment type  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

A.  This  type   is  characterized  by  the  uniform  manner, 

in  which  lumbering  and  regeneration  proceed  over  large  areas. 

This  uniformity  is  possible  only  in  somewhat  even-aged  tracts. 
Great  difficulties  are  experienced  in  mixed  forests,  owing  to  the 
difference  of   light   requirements. 

The  fixed  conditions  inviting  the  forester  to  adopt  this  type 
are  of  a  rather  rare  character,  almost  absent  from  primeval  woods. 
'Ihe  education  value  of  this  type,  however,  is  unparalleled. 

B.  Actual  application:  Shade  bearers  are  better  adapted  to 
this  type  than  light  demanders.  Beech  is  usually  treated  under  this 
type;  Maple  and  Ash  frequently  so;  Oak  largely  in  France,  rarely 
in  Germany;  Fir  and  Spruce  in  parts  of  the  Black  Forest;  Pine  in 
the  old  country  but  rarely  owing  to  its  demands  on  light. 

This  "  military  "  type  was  created  by  George  L.  Hartig,  toward 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  considered  the  ideal 
type  of  regeneration  up  to  about  1875.  It  is  now  far  from  being 
abandoned,  maintaining  its  role  as  the  most  commonly  used  type 
of  seed  regeneration,  although  usually  bastardized,  in  modern  times, 
with  the  strip  and  the  group  type. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  Thorough  protection  of  the  soil,  of  its  productive  capacity 
and  its  porosity. 

II.  Small  risk  of  utter  failure. 

III.  Large  tracts  taken  in  hand  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

IV.  Methodical,  military  manner  of  proceeding  which  facili- 
tates instruction  of  the  staff  of  rangers  and  proper  execution  of 
orders  by  the  staff. 

V.  Mother  trees,  standing  above  the  young  growth  in  isolated 
position,  yield  an  extra-increment  of  high  value  ("light  increment"). 

VI.  Young  growth  is  well  protected  against  climatic  adversities. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Difficulty  of  obtaining  a  desired  mixture  of  species  in  the 
young  growth. 

124 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

II.  Necessity  for  the  entire  number  of  old  trees  to  reach 
maturity  at  or  about  at  the  same  time. 

III.  Even-aged  forests  are  formed  by  this  type  which  are 
badly  endangered  by  insects,  fungi,  storm,  snow,  etc. 

IV.  The  young  growth  is  badly  damaged  during  the  latter 
stages  of  logging  operations,  especially  where  heavy  logs  (not 
wood)  are  obtained  and  where  the  road  system  is  deficient;  further 
on  steep  slopes. 

E.  The  uniform  system,  being  particularly  instructive,  de- 
serves a  most  detailed  consideration. 

To  the  mother  trees  is  allotted  a  three-fold  task,  viz.: 

To  seed  the  "  regeneration  area." 

To  protect  the  young  growth  from  atmospheric  hardships  and 
weeds. 

To  prevent  deterioration  of  the  soil  during  the  early  stages 
of  the  second  growth. 

Three  distinct  stages  of  regeneration  must  be  distinguished, 
viz. : 

I.  The  "  preparatory  stage,"  initiated  by  a  preparatory  cutting. 

II.  The  "  seeding  stage,"  initiated  by  a  seeding  cutting. 

III.  The  "  final  stage,"  during  which  the  final  fellings  take 
place. 

I.  The  preparatory  stage: 

a.  Purpose:      The  preparatory  cutting  intends: 

1.  To  prepare  the  soil  underneath  the  mother  trees  for  a  seed- 
bed, by  increasing  the  rate  of  disintegration  of  vegetable  matter. 
The  soil  is  best  prepared  at  a  time  Avhen  no  weeds,  but  a  few 
shoots  of  sweet  grasses  appear  here  and  there.  The  humus  decom- 
poses at  the  quickest  rate  on  limestone;  at  the  slowest  rate  on 
sand  and  sandstone. 

2.  To  prepare  the  mother  trees  for  regeneration  by  allowing 
them  a  larger  crown  space,  thus  inviting  the  development  of  seed 
buds;  further  by  increasing  their  stability,  so  that  they  may  resist 
the  storms  when  placed  in  a  more  isolated  position; 

3.  To  remove  undesirable  species,  thus  preventing  them  from 
propagating  their  kind. 

4.  To  reduce  the  volume  of  the  growing  stock  so  as  to  facili- 
tate the  maintenance  of  a  normal  growing  stock  and  so  as  to 
have  less  material  to  remove  when  the  young  growth  appears  on 
the  regeneration  area. 

b.  Duration:  The  duration  of  the  preparatory  stage  depends 
upon  the  species  and  the  soil.     Shade-bearing  species  found  in  dense 

125 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

stands  need  a  longer  period  of  preparation  than  the  light-demanding 
species.  On  soil  rich  with  lime  and  in  the  lowlands,  the  prepara- 
tory stage  is  much  shorter  than  on  sandstone  and  in  the  highlands. 

c.  Area:  The  area  (in  per  cent,  of  the  entire  forest  area)  to  be 
prepared  depends  upon  the  necessities  of  the  market  and  of  the 
mill  (equal  annual  yield),  on  the  prospects  of  a  seed  year,  on  the 
frequency  of  seed  years,  and  on  the  urgency  of  other  fellings. 

d.  Trees:  The  preparatory  cutting  should  remove  all  sickly 
trees  and  all  undesirable  species.  Further,  those  which  have  the 
crowns  low  down  to  the  ground,  which  will  shade  the  young  growth 
later  on  and  which  now  lessen  the  rate  of  disintegration  of  vege- 
table matter.  No  dominant  trees  should  be  taken  out.  Near  the 
•edge  of  the  compartment  it  is  wise  to  keep  the  leaf  canopy  as  close 
as  possible,  so  as  to  prevent  the  influence  of  drying  winds. 

e.  Marking:  The  forester  himself  should  mark  every  tree  to  be 
taken  out  during  the  preparatory  stage.  When  the  wood  cutters 
are  not  reliable,  it  is  necessary  to  mark  the  stumps  of  the  trees 
as  Avell. 

f.  Lumbering:  Where  it  pays  to  dig  out  the  tree  by  the  roots, 
it  is  well  to  do  so,  because  a  better  seed-bed  is  the  result.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  only  trees  marked  are  felled,  and  that  those 
left  are  not  damaged.  There  is  no  need  to  move  the  firewood  and 
timber  out  to  the  roads,  if  the  regeneration  area  otherwise  allows 
of  snaking,  wagoning,  etc. 

g.  Pasture:  Cattle  should  not  be  admitted  any  more  for  pas- 
turage during  the  preparatory  stage.  Pannage  of  hogs  will  be  of 
^ood  advantage.  Mice  and  insects  are  eaten  by  them.  Hogs  break 
up  the  net  work  of  roots,  leaves  and  moss  forming  the  soil  cover 
and  hindering  germinating  seeds  from  catching  root. 

II.  The  seeding  stage. 

a.  Time :     The  best  time  for  "  seeding  cutting  "  is  a  seed  year. 
The  forester  should  be  able  to  tell  from  the  looks  of  the  buds 

whether  a  seed  year  is  at  hand.  The  frequency  of  seed  years 
depends  on  the  species  and  on  the  locality. 

If  there  is  no  prospect  for  seeds,  the  seeding  cutting  should 
be  postponed,  and  if  a  sustained  yield  is  desired,  it  should  be 
made  up  by  preparatory  cuttings,  final  cuttings  and  thinnings. 

b.  The  area  over  which  the  seeding  cutting  should  extend 
■depends  on  the  area  prepared  for  regeneration,  on  the  length  of  the 
period  of  regeneration,  on  the  periodical  occurrence  of  seed  years,  on 
the  requirements  for  a  sustained  yield  and  on  the  available  market. 

126 


THE   ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

The  scarcer  the  seed  years,  the  larger  is  the  area  placed  in  the 
•seeding  stage  when  a  mast  year  arrives. 

The  longer  the  period  during  which  the  seedlings  require  shelter, 
the  larger  is  the  area  to  be  taken  in  hand  at  a  seeding  cutting. 

c.  Trees:  It  is  wise  to  take  the  biggest  trees  first,  as  their 
removal  at  a  later  date  will  result  in  great  damage  to  the  yoimg 
growth. 

If  the  forester  is  sure  to  be  able  to  remove  some  more  trees 
after  the  lapse  of  one  or  two  years,  a  light  seeding  cutting  is  usually 
"best. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  their  lives  the  young  seedlings 
stand  a  great  deal  of  shade,  even  those  of  light-demanding  species, 
on  fair  soil. 

The  degree  of  light  which  should  fall  on  the  ground  after  a 
seeding  cutting,  depends  on  species,  height  of  trees,  form  of  trees 
and  locality. 

In  the  case  of  tender  and  slow-growing  species,  the  cover  should 
be  close.  In  the  case  of  tall  trees,  slight  interruptions  of  the  leaf 
■canopy  are  sufficient. 

On  good  soilj  where  weeds  are  to  be  dreaded,  the  cover  should 
be  denser  than  imder  the  reversed  conditions.  On  a  southern  ex- 
posure, the  cover  should  be  dense.  Fir,  Beech  and  Spruce  require  a 
close  stand  of  the  mother  trees  on  strong  soil  and  at  high  elevations. 

Oak  and  Pine  on  alluvial  sand  of  average  (}uality  should  be 
tapped  heavily. 

d.  The  proportion  of  trees  left  and  trees  cut  might  be  gauged  by: 

1.  The  distance  or  space  between  the  crowns.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  give  any  data  as  to  the  best  distance  of  the  crowns.  The 
form  of  the  crowns  is  so  irregular  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  best  average  distance. 

2.  The  number  of  stems  which  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  cover 
■overhead  where  yield  tables  are  at  hand,  if  the  age  and  the  locality 
are  known. 

3.  The  sectional  area  of  the  stems  cut  and  of  the  stems 
remaining. 

4.  The  volume  cut  and  the  volume  remaining. 

e.  Preparation  of  soil:  Shade-bearing  species  maintaining  the 
porosity  of  the  soil  better  than  light-demanding  species  often  allow 
"the  forester  to  get  along  without  any  preparation  of  the  soil.  Under 
light-demanding  species,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hardening  of  the 
soil  at  the  time  of  seed  cutting  often  necessitates  the  preparation 
of  the  ground  so  that  it  may  serve  as  a  seed-bed.  This  preparation 
may  consist  of: 

127 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

1.  Removal  of  leaves,  weeds  or  moss. 

2.  "Working  the  ground  by  pasturing  hogs. 

3.  Wounding  the  soil  in  open  spaces,  with  a  hoe. 

4.  Breaking  the  soil  with  a  strong  plow. 

f.  Lumbering.  All  cutting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  seeds  have  dropped  so  as  to  bring  them  into  contact  with 
the  ground  at  once.  The  wood  or  timber  cut  should  be  dragged  to 
the  roads  previous  to  the  germination  of  the  seeds.  The  heavier 
the  seed  cutting  is,  the  larger  will  be  the  percentage  of  seeds 
finding  germination.  Most  of  the  seeds  are  imbedded  by  the  steps 
of  the  woodsmen. 

Advance  growth  sliould  be  removed  wherever  it  appears  singly. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  remaining  mother  trees  are  not  damaged 
by  lumbering. 

g.  Covering  the  seeds:  The  covering  of  the  seeds  is  left  to 
nature  or  to  hazard.  It  might  be  advisable,  however,  to  secure  a 
coA'ering  artificially  with  the  help  of  a  rake,  or  by  plowing,  after 
the  seeds  have  dropped,  or  by  pressing  heavy  seeds  (nuts,  acorns) 
into  the  ground  with  a  blunt  stick. 

h.  Fire:  After  the  seeds  have  dropped,  the  utmost  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  fire  from  running  through  the  forest.  A  fire 
previous  to  the  dropping  of  the  seed  may  be  advantageous,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  Yellow  Pines.  After  the  seeding,  however,  it 
should  be  prevented. 

III.  The  final  stage. 

The  removal  of  the  seed  trees  left  takes  place  during  the  final 
stage. 

a.  Purpose:  By  the  gradual  removal  of  the  mother  trees,  the 
yoimg  forest  is  gradually  lead  into  a  life  under  changed  conditions, 
imtil  it  is  ready  to  enjoy  the  full  influence  of  sunshine,  air  and  rain. 

b.  Number  of  cuttings:  Tlie  more  gradual  the  removal,  the 
less  damage  results  for  the  young  growth  from  the  logging  opera- 
tions and  from  changed  environments.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
cheapest  and  best,  from  the  logger's  standpoint,  to  remove  the 
seed  trees  at  one  stroke. 

c.  Beginning:  The  beginning  of  the  final  fellings  depends  on  the 
development  of  the  young  growth.  In  the  case  of  poor  soil,  of  light- 
demanding  species  and  of  northern  climate,  fellings  should  start  in 
the  fall  following  the  seeding. 

In  the  case  of  shade-bearing  species,  strong  soil  and  southern 
climate,  the  second  or  third  fall  should  be  waited  for.  The  drier 
the  locality,  the  quicker  must  be  the  removal  of  the  mother  trees. 

128 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

d.  Duration:  The  duration  of  the  final  stage  depends  on  species, 
on  quality  of  soil,  on  success  of  seeding  cutting,  on  occurrence  of 
subsequent  seed  years  and  on  climate.  A  tender,  slow-growing  and 
shade-bearing  species  allows   of  a  protracted  period  of  removal. 

A  few  trees  left  in  isolated  positions  are  apt  to  damage  the 
young  growth  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  the  bark; 
this  is  the  ease  especially  in  species  having  a  whitish  bark  (Beech, 
Maple,  Birch,  Silver  Fir). 

e.  Marking  for  final  removal:  Broad-leaved  trees  should  be 
marked  in  summer  whilst  the  trees  and  the  young  growth  are  in 
leaf.       . 

By  the  first  final  felling  none  but  small  trees  shall  be  removed, 
after  Hess.  From  the  second  fall  (after  the  seed  cutting)  on,  the 
seedlings  being  stronger  at  that  time,  it  is  wise  to  take  the  largest 
trees. 

f.  Season:  The  cutting  of  the  mother  trees  should  take  place 
when  snow  covers  the  ground,  so  as  to  do  the  least  possible  damage 
to  the  yoimg  growth.  Fellings  must  be  discontinued  during  hard 
frost.  Broad-leafed  species  should  not  be  cut  before  leaves  are 
dropped  as  they  will  do  more  damage  to  their  progeny  when  felled 
in  leaf. 

Hess  is  in  favor  of  cutting  in  fall,  claiming  that  the  young 
growth  at  that  time  is  particularly  tough  and  elastic.  He  does 
not  attribute  much  weight  to  the  presence  of  snow  unless  it  covers 
the  young 'growth  entirely. 

g.  Stumps  and  roots:  If  the  trees  are  dug. out  by  the  roots,  the 
force  with  which  they  hit  the  ground  is  considerably  lessened. 

In  coniferous  forests,  many  parasitic  insects  breed  in  stumps, 
and  in  that  case  it  may  be  necessary  to  dig  them  out  of  the  ground, 
or  to  poison  them. 

Where  the  tree  is  entirely  surroimded  by  young  growth,  digging 
should  be  prohibited. 

h.  How  to  fell  a  tree:  The  tree  to  be  cut  should  be  thrown  onto 
that  place  where  it  is  likely  to  do  the  least  damage — especially  onto 
"  blanks."  It  is  wise  to  throw  the  crowns  of  several  trees  onto  the 
same  spot  so  as  to  centralize  the  damage.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
sylviculturists  prefer  to  throw  the  crowns  of  the  trees  into  the  very 
thickest  young  growth,  claiming  that  the  damage  thereby  done  is 
considerably  less,  and  that  many  youngsters  will  be  left  undamaged. 

i.  Standards:  In  many  cases,  a  few  trees  are  left  standing  for 
a  second  rotation.  Such  trees  are  called  "  standards."  Standards 
of  Oak,  Pine  and  Ash  are  frequently  found.      They  should  not  be 

129 


a:\ierican  sylviculture 

left  unless  they  stand  close  to  a  road,  or  unless  they  are  certain 
to  outlast  a  second  rotation. 

j.  Pruning  of  mother  trees:  Low  branches  which  oversliadow 
the  young  growth  heavily  should  be  cut. 

k.  Transportation  of  wood:  All  wood  and  timber  should  be 
moved  to  the  nearest  roads  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  trees  are 
cut.  Speedy  removal  is  especially  necessary  in  coniferous  forests, 
the  young  growth  having  little  reproductive  power.  A  snow  cover 
might  be  used  to  remove  the  wood  on  sleds;  high-wheeled  trucks 
will  answer  splendidly  on  level  ground.  The  method  of  "  roping  " 
used  in  the  Black  Forest  also  saves  the  young  growth.  All  wood 
and  timber  must  be  removed  from  the  regeneration  area  •previous 
to  tlie  opening  of  the  buds. 

I.  Pasturage:  There  is  no  need  to  say  that  the  young  growth 
should  be  protected  against  pasture. 

m.  Reinforcing:  Blanks  should  be  filled  only  when  the  mother 
trees  have  been  entirely  removed.  Tlie  plants  may  be  taken  from 
dense  places  where  the  natural  regeneration  is  complete  or,  better, 
from  nurseries. 


Paragraph  XLIX.     The    shelterwood  strip  type 
of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

a  A.  This  type  bears  the  same  ratio  to  the  shelterwood  com- 
partment type  of  regeneration  which  the  cleared  strip  type  bears 
to  the  cleared  compartment  type. 

In  the  shelterwood  strip  type,  as  in  the  cleared  strip  type, 
fellings  and  regeneration  begin  at  the  leeward  side  of  a  compart- 
ment (cove,  slope)  and  proceed  gradually  against  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  storms,  or  else  from  the  North  to  the  South. 

Heavy-seeded  species  as  well  as  light-seeded  species  allow  of 
the  strip  type.  Distinct  light  demanders,  however,  defy  it  on  the 
poorer  grades  of  soil. 

The  nuclei  are  laid  out  geometrically  in  the  shape  of  strips 
crossing  the  prevailing  wind-direction  at  right  angles.  The  most 
leeward  strip  is  in  the  final  stage;  the  most  windward  strip  is  in 
the  preparatory  stage;  the  middle  strip  is  in  the  seeding  stage, 
provided  that  the  conditions  are  normal. 

The  breadth  of  a   strip  depends   on  species,   frequency  of  seed 
years,  configuration   of  ground  and  so  on.      At  a  breadth  of  over 
500  feet,  the  strip  type  bastardizes  with  the  compartment  type. 
130 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

More  frequently,  the  shelterwood  strip  type  is  bastardized  with 
the  shelterwood  group  type  (e.  g.,  in  the  famous  Bavarian  forests 
near  Kehlheim). 

Regeneration  of  a  cove,  slope,  tract,  etc.,  under  the  pure  strip 
type,  is  exceedingly  slow,  unless  there  are  at  hand  a  number  of 
"  series  of  strips,"  all  triplets,  consisting  of  a  preparatory,  a  seeding 
and  a  final  strip. 

The  first  strips  are  usually  made,  as  in  the  cleared  strip  type, 
in  well- sheltered  ravines  or  gullies;  or  at  the  windward  edge  of 
lakes,  fields,  young  growth;  or  at  the  windward  edge  of  storm-firm 
trees  (Oaks),  where  there  is  a  mixture  of  storm-firm  species  with 
species  endangered  by  storm. 

The  form  of  the  strips  need  not  be  exactly  rectangular.  In 
the  mountains,  the  strips  usually  run  up  and  down  the  slopes — not 
horizontal — so  as  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  timber  and 
wood  removed  from  the  strip. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
coniferous  woods  of  the  European  moderately  cold  zone;  also  in 
Beech  woods  and  Oak  woods. 

Like   the  uniform   tj-pe,   the   strip  type   is   not  exactly   natural. 

In  the  Spruce  woods  of  the  Appalachians,  where  the  wind  lays 
low  one  row  of  trees  after  the  other,  in  the  course  of  many  years, 
the  woods  look  frequently  as  if  they  were  regenerated  by  the  shelter- 
wood  strip   type. 

C.  Advantages:  The  advantages  of  the  shelterwood  strip  type 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  shelterwood  compartment  type — 
excepting  advantage  III.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  small  pieces 
of  property,  which  could  not  yield  steady  returns  under  the  uniform 
type.  Greater  security  from  storm  is  characteristic  for  the  strip 
type.  Liberty  of  action,  since  there  are  many  points  at  which  the 
annual  cut  may  be  made,  is  a  further  advantage. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Uifficult}'  of  obtaining  a  desired  mixture  of  species  in  the 
young  growth. 

II.  Trees  at  the  extreme  windward  edge  of  a  cutting  series 
obtain  an  extravagantly  high  age,  whilst  regeneration  proceeds 
slowly  and  gradually  against  them. 

III.  Tardiness  of  a  complete  regeneration  of  a  whole  compart- 
ment, slope  or  cove,  where  there  are  but  a  few  points  of  first 
attack. 

IV.  Operations  are  more  scattering  than  in  the  shelterwood 
compartment  type. 

131 


AMEBIC AX    SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  L.     The  shelterwood   ^roup   type   of 
natural  seed   regeneration. 

A.  diaracteristic   features. 

I.  Species:  All  species  can  be  dealt  with  in  a  group  system; 
those  endangered  by  windfall,  however,  require  a  modification  of 
the  system,  or  a  sniall  rotation,  or  a  regular  progress  of  the  groups 
toward  the  storm  danger. 

II.  Beginning:  In  the  shelterwood  system,  the  nuclei  for  groups 
are  formed  at  a  time,  at  which  the  soil  begins  to  be,  here  and  there, 
a  ready  recipient  for  seed.  In  the  nucleus,  two  or  three  trees  are 
cut,  to  begin  with,  and  a  few  seedlings  soon  enter  an  appearance. 

III.  Continuation:  The  young  growth  gradually  spreads  out, 
more  or  less  peripherically,  from  the  nucleus,  appearing  at  the  feet 
of  the  nearest  trees.  These  trees,  in  turn,  are  gradually  removed, 
whilst  the  groups  of  seedlings  continue  to  enlarge.  Finally  one 
group  will  flow  into  the  other,  and  the  regeneration  will  present 
a  waving  leaf  canopy.  The  regularity  of  the  canopy  depends  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  groups  could  be  enlarged. 

IV.  Means  of  transportation:  The  type  obviously  requires  a 
finely  meshed,  permanent  network  of  transportation.  The  axe 
returns  to  the  group  under  formation  periodically,  say  every  three 
to  ten  years,  during  a  period  of  regeneration  comprising  from  fifteen 
to  fifty  years. 

V.  Soil  protection:  The  soil  is  continuously  protected  from 
intensive  insolation,  and  is  hence  kept  in  continuous  productiveness. 

VI.  Dangers:  Protection  from  fire  is  very  difficult;  protection 
from  storm  diflficult,  although  easier  than  in  the  shelterwood  com- 
partment type.  Insects,  fungi,  and  snowbreak  are  not  to  be  dreaded 
much  more  than  under  the  selection  system. 

VII.  Lumbering:  Mother  trees  are  always  felled  in  a  manner 
forcing  them  away  from  the  group.  Hypermature  trees  close  to 
the  group  are  extracted  at  the  same  time.  Lumbering  operations 
are  necessarily  scattered.  The  logging  expenses  and  the  cost  of 
supervision  range  very  high.  The  removal  (snaking)  of  the  trees 
cut  takes  place  through  the  benches  of  trees  left  between  the  groups 
so  that  the  soil  is  stirred  up  continuously  within  the  benches. 

The  groups  should  be  started,  if  possible,  at  the  upper  end  of  a 
slope  so  that  the  logs  need  not  be  snaked  through  young  growth. 

VIII.  Artificial  help:  To  start  regeneration  of  a  nucleus,  and 
to  accelerate  the  enlargement  of  a  group,  mosses,  weeds  and  litter 
on  the  ground  may  be  removed  previous  to  a  seed  year  (bastardiz- 
ing with  advance  growth  group  type). 

132 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

The  so-called  "  hair-dressing "  of  groups,  by  which  misshapen 
and  branchy  growth  is  cut  back,  and  the  wave-form  of  groups  is 
maintained,  may  be  seen  in  the  Black  Forest. 

B.  Actual  application:  The  shelterwood  group  type  appears 
to  be  a  type  of  regeneration  sometimes  adopted  by  primeval  nature 
in  Beech,  ilaple.  Fir,  Hemlock  and  Pine  woods. 

As  a  sylvicultural  method  adapted  to  the  woods  of  Germany, 
the  shelterwood  group  system  has  been  fathered  by  Charles  Gayer. 

It  is  a  modern  type  of  German  n.  s.  r.,  applied  especially  in  the 
natural  seed  regeneration  of  Spruce  and  Beech. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  type  grants  the  forester  the  utmost  liberty  of  action, 
by  offering  him  a  large  number  of  points  at  which  to  start  and  at 
which  to  continue  his  logging  operations. 

II.  In  mixed  forests,  the  system  allows  of  fostering  the  most 
valuable  species  and  of  checking  the  less  desirable  species  or  the 
weed  species. 

III.  The  type  does  not  take  any  sylviculture  chances. 

IV.  The  young  growth  is  well  protected  against  the  usual 
atmospheric  dangers. 

V.  The  good  qualities  of  the  soil  are  carefully  husbanded. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  type  makes  unusual  demands  on  the  personal  and  local 
attention  of  the  manager  as  well  as  of  the  staff,  necessitating  small 
ranges  and  high  administrative  expenses. 

II.  JNIother  trees  at  the  leeward  side  of  an  enlarged  group  are 
subject  to  dangers  from  storm;  on  the  northeast  side  of  a  group 
subject  to  dangers  from  sun  scald. 

III.  A  large  outlay  is  incurred  for  logging  the  trees  owing  to 
the  scattering  character  of  the  operations  and  owing  to  the  care 
required  in  felling  and  transportation,  for  the  benefit  of  both  young 
and  old  growth. 

IV.  In  the  case  of  very  large  trees,  covering  by  their  crowns 
as  much  as  500  to  1,000  square  feet,  the  removal  of  an  individual 
tears  too  big  a  hole  into  the  forest  and  enlarges  the  group  too 
rapidly  at  a  stroke. 

V.  The  type  does  not  allow  of  the  removal  of  hyper  mature  trees 
with  proper  expedition.  They  are  not  removed  but  when  the  waves 
of  the  group  begin  to  touch  their  feet. 

VI.  The  soil  in  the  proximity  of  white  barked  trees  bordering 
a  group  is  scorched  by  reflected  sun  rays. 

133 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  LI.     The  shelterwood  selection  type 
of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

This  type  srarcely  exists  in  a  pure  form.  Wliere  it  exists,  it 
is  invariably  bastardized  with  the  cleared  selection  or  the  advance 
growth  selection  type  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

The  pure  type  would  imply  the  immediate  development  (or 
rather  the  simultaneous  development)  of  a  seedling  growth  in  the 
very  year  (a  seed  year)  in  which  the  individual  trees — very  irregu- 
larly, very  scatteringly,  on  the  basis  of  their  lelative  maturity — 
are  selected  for  removal. 

"Wliere  the  removal  leaves  a  blank,  tliere  we  meet  the  cleared 
selection  type. 

"Where  the  removal  allows  an  advance  growth  already  at  hand 
to  fill  the  gap,  there  Ave  meet  the  advance  growth  selection  type. 

The  premises  for  the  shelterwood  selection  type  are  identical 
with  those  for  the  cleared  selection  type  and  for  the  advance  growth 
selection  type. 


Paragraph  LII.     Types  in  which  lumbering  fol- 
lows natural  seed  regeneration. 

In  these  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration — so-called  advance 
growth  types — no  tree  is  removed  unless  its  foot  be  already  sur- 
rounded by  a  young  progeny  of  desirable  character  which  has  pre- 
viously developed  beneath  the  parent's  or  step-parent's  leaf  canopy. 

The  case  of  exceedingly  fertile  soil  and  the  case  of  step-parents 
having  a  light  leaf  canopy  excepted,  none  but  absolute  shade  bearers 
can  be  propagated  by  this  type.  So  e.  g.,  Hemlock,  Fir,  Beech, 
Maple,  Lawson's  Cypress,  Western  Red  Cedar. 

In  the  Lake  States,  White  Pine  is  found  as  a  regeneration 
formed  in  advance  beneath  mature  Norway  Pines  acting  as  step- 
parents  (advance  growth  group  type). 

In  the  Adirondacks,  Spruce  regenerates  similarly  underneath 
mature  Cottonwoods  acting  as  step-parents  or,  on  very  fertile  soil, 
selectionwise  beneath  Beech,  Maple  and  Birch. 

Striking  it  is  that  species  not  absolutely  shade  enduring  are, 
in  many  a  case,  loth  to  be  regenerated,  as  an  advance  growth,  at 
the  feet  of  their  actual  parents,  whilst  willing  to  be  suppressed 
beneath  step-parents  of  apparently  similar  density  of  foliage 
(Yellow  Poplar  at  Biltmore  underneath  Oak  or  Short-leaf  Pine; 
Spruce  underneath  Cottonwoods). 

134 


THE   ART    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

Seedlings  regenerating  under  their  own  kin  resemble  altricial 
(nidicole)  birds;  seedlings  avoiding  parental  superstructure  might  be 
likened  to  precocial   (nidifugal)   birds. 

A.  The  chances  for  successful  regeneration  in  these  types 
seem  excellent.     Still,  the  following  points  must  not  be  lost  sight  of: 

I.  Advance  growth  badly  suppressed  for  a  long  time  is  fre- 
qiienth  so  badly  crippled  that  it  fails  to  recover  within  a  reasonable 
number  of  years. 

II.  The  advance  growth  is  badly  smashed  by  and  during  the  fell- 
ing operations,  unless  the  mother  trees  are  pruned  and  lopped  before 
felling,  and  unless  the  timber  obtained  is  carried  out  either  by 
hand,  or  on  high  wheel  trucks,  or  on  a  heavy  cover  of  snow  pro- 
tecting the  advance  growth.  Under  any  circumstances,  fellings 
during  the  period  of  vegetation  must  be  avoided. 

ni.  Advance  growth  suddenly  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of 
sun,  rain,  snow,  sleet,  etc.,  is  apt  to  suffer  in  case  of  sensitive  species. 

IV.  A  minute  system  of  permanent  roads  is  required,  the  ad- 
vance growth  usually  appearing  in  groups  or  patches. 

V.  If  the  pure  types  of  advance  growth  n.  s.  r.  were  strictly 
adhered  to,  a  regulation  of  the  annual  cut  according  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  market  would  be  difficult  to  obtain.  Ilypermature  trees 
would  have  to  be  left  everywhere — merely  because  young  growth 
is  often  slow  to  form  on  their  feet. 

In  such  cases,  artificial  preparation  of  a  seed-bed  (e.  g.,  by 
uncovering  the  mineral  soil)  seems  absolutely  required,  so  as  to 
expediate  the  formation  of  an  advance  growth. 

If  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  is  opened  at  the  same  time  by 
felling  operations,  the  types  bastardize  with  the  shelterwood  types 
of  n.  s.  r. 

B.  According  to  the  extent  of  the  area  covered  by  an 
advance  growth  of  suitable  character  we  distinguish  between: 

I.  Advance  growth  compartment  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  areas 
uniformly  covered  by  advance  growth  measuring  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  acres   (rare). 

II.  Advance  growth  strip  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  areas  uniformly 
covered  by  advance  growth  appearing  as  strips  measuring  iip  to 
500  feet  in  breadth   (very  rare). 

III.  Advance  growth  group  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  groups  covered 
by  advance  growth  having  an  extent  of  from  one-tenth  to  four 
acres    (frequent). 

IV.  Advance  growth  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  young  seed- 
lings and  saplings  appearing  in  scattered  and  sma.ll  patches  (very 
common).  ,„_ 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

By  "advance  growth"  is  understood  an  aggregate  (small  or 
large)  of  seedlings  or  saplings  belonging  to  a  desirable  species  and 
formed  without  any  human  intention  or  attention,  solely  by  nature, 
beneath  a  totally  or  partially  untouched  leaf  canopy  overhead. 

[Misshapen  advance  growth  appearing  in  bunches  or  groups  can 
be  doctored  up  with  axe  and  brushhook  and  machetes,  by  an  appli- 
cation of  "  hairdressing." 

Where  the  advance  growth  is  not  freed,  by  one  single  operation, 
from  the  superstructure  of  parents  and  step-parents  overhead,  the 
advance  growth  types  are  further  bastardized  with  the  shelterwood 
types. 


Paragraph  LIII.     The  advance  growth  compart- 
ment type  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

A.  The  type  is  applicable  where  large  areas  exhibit  on 
strong  soil  a  uniform  advance  growth,  consisting  of  seedlings,  of 
saplings  and  possibly  of  small  poles. 

Previous  to  lumbering,  the  leaf  canopy  consists  of  two  tiers: 
an  upper  tier  formed  by  the  parents  (or  step-parents)  and  a  lower 
tier  formed  by  the  advance  growth.  Lumbering  removes  the  upper 
tier  entirelj'  and  leaves  the  lower  tier  intact — if  possible. 

In  the  safety  of  the  lower  tier  lies  the  great  difficulty  of  the 
system,  especially  on  rough  ground,  in  handling  heavy  logs  of  the 
superstructure,  in  dealing  with  cheap  stumpage.  in  cutting  soft 
woods  characterized  by  small  healing  power  and  in  the  absence  of 
an  intricate  system  of  transportation. 

Where  the  upper  story  of  trees  consists  of  say  10,000  feet  b.  m. 
per  acre,  or  of  more,  the  ground  is  literally  littered  with  logs  or 
boles  during  the  logging  operations,  and  the  advance  growth  has  but 
a  slight  chance  to  survive  the  death  of  its  progenitors. 

B.  Actual  application:  The  type  is  found,  in  rare  cases, 
abroad  imder  the  misnomer  of  a  modified  "  selection  system,"  where 
and  when  the  logger  returns  for  a  wholesale  removal  of  mature 
trees,  at  intervals  of  about  twenty  years,  to  the  same  compart- 
ments. 

The  type  is  also  practical  where  prolific  seed  years  produce, 
in  mild  sites  and  on  strong  soil,  a  uniform  advance  growth  in  even- 
aged  Beech  or  Firwoods,  without  any  previous  human  interference 
with  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  (so-called  regeneration  from  a  com- 
plete growing  stock). 

136 


THE  AET  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

In  the  liardwood  forests  of  Micliigan,  liglit  surface  fires  tend  to 
destroy  tlie  heavy  litter  on  tlie  ground,  and  to  produce  a  wonderful 
crop  of  seedlings  (Hard  Maple,  Beech,  Elm),  long  before  the  logger 
begins  to  operate.  On  Star  Island,  in  the  Minnesota  National  Forest, 
fire  has  made  possible  the  development  of  a  fine  stand  of  seedling 
White  Pine  beneath  a  dense  stand  of  Red  Pine.  Where  the  litter  i3 
raked  away,  in  the  Southern  Pineries,  to  be  used  on  the  rice  farm, 
a  healthy  growth  of  Pines  is  allowed  to  come  up,  before  the  axe 
touches  the  trees.  The  splendid  regenerations  of  Scotch  Pine  at 
Ysenburg,  Germany,  have  been  obtained  by  this  type  on  soil  deprived 
of  its  leaf  mould. 

In  the  United  States  the  removal  of  the  superstructure,  usually 
followed  by  fires,  tends  to  annihilate  every  vestige  of  advance 
growth. 

C.  Advantages: 

Where  the  system  can  be  carried  through,  it  offers  the  follow- 
ing advantages: 

I.  Concentrated  logging. 

II.  Well-preserved   productiveness   of   the   soil. 

III.  Soil  never  idling,  but  producing  without  any  delay. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  type  is  applicable  only  to  intense  sliade  bearers;  and 
these  shade  bearers  are  very  apt  to  suffer  from  f^udden  changes  of 
environments. 

II.  The  logging  expenses  are  very  badly  increased  in  the  attempt 
to  save  the  advance  growth  from  destruction. 

III.  Under  any  circumstances,  the  rapid  removal  of  mother  trees 
inflicts  scars  upon  the  young  growth  apt  to  serve  as  entrance  gates 
for  fungi  and  insects. 


Paragraph  LIV.     The  advance  growth  strip  type 
of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

A.  Advance  groivth,  being  a  chance  product,  is  rarely 
found  in  symmetrical,  long-drawn  strips.  Where  the  cleared  strip- 
type  is  introduced,  however,  a  strip  of  advance  growth  is  often  and 
easily  started  underneath  the  border  trees  joining  the  cleared  strip 
to  the  windward.  In  that  case,  the  advance  growth  strip-type  is  « 
bastardized  with  the  cleared  strip-type. 

B.  Actual  application: 

The  type  is  found  but  in  the  bastard  form  just  mentioned. 
137 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  Xo  exponso  required  for  ri'j^'oncration  (unless  weeds,  leaves 
or  moss  are  removed). 

II.  Advanee  growth  is  readily  saved,  where  the  logs  are  removed 
through  the  adjoining  woods. 

III.  A  road  system  touching  the  lower  edge  of  the  strips  is 
sufficient. 

IV.  Soil  is  never  laid  bare. 

V.  Little  damage  from  windfall. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Scattering  operations. 

II.  Type  is  not  applicable  to  light  demanders. 

III.  Hypermature  trees  must  be  left  in  the  woods  until  the 
strips,  after  many  years,  may  approach  them. 

IV.  Points  of  attack  from  which  cutting  may  proceed  are  apt 
to  be  lacking,  unless  the  forester,  helped  by  th.^  configuration  of 
the  ground,  is  able  to  maintain  a  large  number  of  narrow  cutting- 
series. 


Paragraph  LV.    The  advance  growth  ^roup  type 
of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

A.  In   nature,   advance   growth,  usually  appears    in   small 

bunches  or  in  groups,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  always  a  chance- 
for  many  seedlings  to  sprout  and  develop  on  a  spot  where  light, 
humidity  and  soil  allow  a  single  individual  to  make  a  start  alone. 
In  the  primeval  Avoods,  groups  of  advance  growth  formed  by  shade 
bearing  species  are  almost  invariably  at  hand.  Even  light  de- 
manders may  form  small  groups  of  advance  growth  in  spite  of  a 
superstructure  overhead,  provided  that  the  soil  is  strong  enough  to 
support  them. 

Such  groups,  freed  from  the  trees  superstructing  them,  will 
develop  one  or  a  number  of  saplings  which  in  turn  and  in  course 
of  time  may  yield  one  or  a  few  poles  promising  to  grow  into  trees- 
of  a  loggable  size. 

Very  frequently  the  groups  are  formed  not  under  tlie  leaf 
canopy  of  the  parent  species,  but  imderneath  another  species  acting 
as  a  step-parent. 

Indeed,  step-parents  of  a  rather  selfish  kind,  inimical  to  the 
children,  are  frequently  encountered  in  tree  life,  handicapping  and 
killing  the  young  progeny  thirsting  at  their  feet  for  light  and  rain. 

The  endurance  of  advance  growth  living  under  adverse  condi- 
138 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

tions  is  at  times  remarkably  great.  Fir,  Spruce,  Beech  and  Maple- 
may  be  met  grown  but  six  feet  high  when  sixty  years  old,  retarded 
by  parental  superstructure. 

The  pure  advance  growth  group  type  is  frequently  bastardized,, 
in  Europe,  Avith  the  shelterwood  group  type  when  the  forester 
uses  existing  groups  of  advance  growth  as  nuclei  to  be  gradually 
enlarged,  instead  of  using  spots  as  nuclei  for  group  regeneration  on 
which  the  soil  chances  to  be  in  a  conceptions  condition.  Further, 
when  a  shelterwood  group  is  forming,  advance  growth  groups  are 
frequently  started,  under  the  influence  of  side  light  on  seedlings 
and  humus,  at  a  goodly  distance  from  the  shelterwood  group,  under- 
neath an  apparently  heavy  superstructure  of  mother  trees. 

The  advance  growth  group  type  pure  and  simple,  however,- 
merely  implies  the  freeing  of  chance  growth  from  a  superstructure. 
It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  gradual  enlargement  of  a  group  by 
ringwise  cutting  around  the  group. 

The  "  hairdressing  "  of  groups  of  advance  growth  is  sometimes 
commendable. 

B.  Actual  application:  Systematically,  this  type  is  nowhere 
applied  in  its  purity.  Accidentally,  however,  the  lumbermen  of 
America  happen  to  employ  it  in  woods  composed  of  Fir,  Hemlock, 
Maple,  Beech,  etc. 

Primeval  nature  employs  this  type  quite  largely. 

C.  Advantages:  The  advantages  of  the  type  are  identical  with 
those  given  under  C,  I,  II  and  IV,  in  paragraph  LIV.  In  addition, 
this  type  may  often  allow  the  forester  to  favor  a  desirable  species 
of  shade-bearing  character. 

Under  sylvicnltural  care,  it  renders  regeneration  an  absolute 
certainty.  The  trees  forming  the  superstructure  frequently  happen 
to  be  of  a  marketable  size.  The  type  does  not  require  much  sylvi- 
cnltural understanding. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Border  trees  to  the  leeward  of  advance  growth  are  subject 
to  windfall  and  sun  scald. 

II.  Advance  growth  groups  continue  to  be  badly  suppressed^ 
along  the  edge  of  the  group,  by  border  trees. 

in.  The  logging  operations  are  scattering,  and  an  intricate 
system  of  permanent  roads  is  required. 

IV.  Only  intense  shade  bearers  can  be  properly  managed^  under 
this  type;  light  demanders  found  in  mixture  with  shade  bearers 
must  gradually  disappear  from  the  mixture.  The  shade  bearers  will' 
form  groups  of  advance  growth  readily  vmderneath  light  demanders  = 
but  not  vice  versa. 


AMERICAN    SYL\  I  CULTURE 

Paragraph  LVI.     The  advance  growth  selection 
type  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

A.  This  type  is  usually  bastardized  ^vitli  tlie  cleared  and 
with  the  shelterwood  selection  type. 

The  selection  by  the  forester  of  trees  to  be  cut  might  be  either 
by  single  trees  or  by  very  small  bunches  of  trees  underlaid  with 
a  carpet  of  advance  growth  covering  about  one-one-hundredth  acre 
of  ground. 

The  logging  operations,  as  in  all  selection  types,  are  exceed- 
ingly scattering;  indeed,  they  ought  to  continuously  extend,  as  a 
matter  of  theoretical  principle,  over  the  entire  forest. 

None  but  shade  bearers,  notably  Fir,  Hemlock,  Maple  and  Spruce, 
are  well  adapted  to  the  type  of  advance  growth  selection. 

The  type,  like  the  cleared  and  the  shelterwood  selection  type, 
renders  the  construction  of  an  intricate  network  of  roads  neces- 
sary. Every  tree,  so  to  speak — not  every  strip  or  every  compart- 
ment— must  be  continuously  accessible. 

Since  the  cuttings  are  comparatively  light,  the  removal  of  the 
logs  prepares  the  ground  insufficiently  for  the  conception  of  seed. 

An  advance  growth  stands  under  very  heavy  shade  for  many 
a  year;  usually  in  small  bunches  of  a  dozen  specimens.  Mis- 
shapen seedlings  and  saplings,  also  those  badly  damaged  during 
logging  operations,  should  be  cut,  or  in  the  case  of  hardwoods  cop- 
piced. 

B.  Actual   application: 

Wherever  the  selection  type  is  applied  in  Europe,  it  is  pre- 
eminently applied  in  the  shape  of  advance  growth  selection  type; 
especially  so  in  parks,  in  small  farm  wood  lots  and  in  protective 
forests.  Usually,  every  compartment  (cove,  slope)  contains  a  wild 
mixture  of  age  classes  of  trees.  The  axe  returns  to  a  compartment 
in  intervals  of  from  one  to  ten  years. 

The  Beech,  although  an  intense  shade  bearer,  develops  very 
branchy  stems  under  such  conditions  (Beech  forests  in  Bucking- 
hamshire, England,  or  near. Louisville,  Kentucky). 

In  primeval  nature,  all  or  practically  all  scattering  and  sparse 
species  are  subjected  to  seed  regeneration  of  the  advance  growth 
selection  type.  The  accidental  death  of  trees  in  the  superstructure 
allows  a  patch  of  advance  growth  found  underneath  to  develop  into 
trees. 

Instances:  White  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  at  Biltmore;  Spruce  on 
hardwood  slopes  in  tlie  Adirondacks;  Hemlock  in  the  Maple  woods 
of  Michigan. 

It  is  surprising  to  find  that  scattering  species  are  regenerated 
140 


THE  ART  OF  THE  8EC0ND  GROWTH 

by  primeval  nature  in  a  type  which  is  considered  by  the  sylvicul- 
turist  applicable  to  none  but  intense  shade  beareis.  The  explana- 
tion lies  in  nature's  long-lasting  patience  and  in  lier  failure  to  be 
disheartened  when  failing  in  innumerable  attempts. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  type  jjrotects  the  soil,  and  hence  the  waters,  best  of  all. 

II.  It  protects  the  young  growth  from  frost,  drought,  high 
winds,  insects,   sleet  and   snow. 

III.  It  is  particularly  pleasing,  from  the  aesthetic  standpoint, 
by  the  unusually  large  variety  of  the  pictures  proffered. 

IV.  Since  every  acre  of  ground  continuously  retains  its  leaf 
canopy,  no  sunshine,  air  and  rain  go  to  waste  In  a  second  growth 
insufiiciently  covering  the  areas  laid  bare.  At  the  same  time,  con- 
tinuous retention  of  moisture  in  the  soil  allows  of  greater  fertility; 
hence  the  quantity  of  wood  fibre  annually  produced  is  greater  in 
the  selection  type  than  in  any  other. 

V.  Small  danger  from  windfall  amongst  parent  trees. 

VI.  Small  danger  from. fire,  since  the  humus  is  kept  moist  con- 
tinuously. On  the  other  hand,  a  fire  once  broken  out  is  extremely 
hard  to  stop. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Logging  operations  are  very  scattering,  and  hence  expensive. 
The   fall    of    individual,   large   trees,  amongst    the   multitude    of 

their  companions  is  very  apt  to  inflict  wounds  upon  them,  through 
which  fungi  and  insects  enter  readily. 

II.  A  minute  net  work  of  permanent  roads  is  required. 

III.  The  primeval  woods,  wherever  they  represent  the  selection 
type,  show  a  preponderance  of  mature  and  hypermature  age  classes. 
Since  the  type  does  not  allow  of  the  removal  of  groups  of  trees  at 
all,  and  of  the  removal  of  individuals  only  where  they  are  under- 
laid by  an  advance  growth,  the  owner  of  primeval  woods  adopting 
this  type  is  forced  to  bring  heavy  sacrifices. 

IV.  It  is  very  difficult  to  regenerate  light  demanders  by  this 
type,  where  they  stand  mixed  with  shade  bearers. 


Paragraph  LVII.  Regeneration  of  valuable 
species  from  self-sown  seed  with,  amongst 
and  into  companions  of  a  w^eedy  character. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  none  but  a  few  of  the  hundreds  of 
seedlings   raised    (artificially  or  naturally)    by   the   forester  have   a. 
chance  to  develop  into  poles,  trees  and  veterans. 
141 


AMERICAN    S  Y  L  V 1 C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

Dense  thickets,  consisting  of  many  saplings,  are  mei'ely  re- 
quired to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  prevent,  by 
natural  pruning,  the  young  boles  from  growing  into  brushy  and 
branchy  specimens   ("orchard  trees"). 

For  the  purpose  at  stake  it  is  immaterial,  in  a  sense,  whether 
the  thickets  consist  of  a  "  mob  "  of  shrubby  weeds  mixed  Avith  a 
few  "  aristocrats "  hailing  from  valuable  species,  or  whether  the 
'entire  thicket  consists  of  "  artistocrats."  More  than  that;  whilst 
the  aristocrat  may  have  at  best  a  small  value  as  a  sapling  or  as  a 
small  pole,  the  "  mob  "  frequently  is  more  conducive  to  jiroper  soil 
protection  and  to  proper  development  of  the  "  aristocracy  "  into  large 
poles  and  standards  than  a  purely  artistocratic  crowd. 

The  danger,  of  course,  prevails  in  mixed  stands  continuously  lest 
the  aristocrats  might  be  overtopped  and  killed  by  the  mob. 

A.  Wherever   the    mob    consists   of   even-aged    seedlings 

(not  of  stoolshoots)  of  shrubs,  that  danger  is  small,  shrubs  usually 
exhibiting  a  slow  rate  of  height  growth  (Alder,  Dogwood,  Hazel, 
Witchhazel,  Rhododendron,  etc.). 

Stoolshoots  of  shrubs,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  grow  so 
fast,  so  dense  and  so  rank  that  they  are  sure  to  o\erpower  an 
aristocracy  of  seedlings  having  the  same  age. 

If  the  mob  promises  to  easily  obtain  the  upper  hand,  then  it 
is  usually  wise  to  delay  regeneration  until  the  shrubbage  shows,  at 
a  much  later  year,  signs  of  a  declining  growth  (Calmia) ;  or  else 
to  wait  until  the  shrubs  allow  a  deadening  (Dogwood) ;  or  to  fire 
the  shrubbage  (Blackjack)  in  heavy  seed  years  of  the  aristocratic 
parentage;  or  to  lumber  heavily  if  the  shrubs  (Striped  ]\Iaple)  are 
sensitive  and  if  the  aristocrats  are  hard3^ 

Certain  weedy  shrubs,  e.  g..  Bamboo  species,  offer  periodically  a 
chance  for  subdual,  viz.,  when  death  overtakes  them  gregariously 
during  their  own  seed  years. 

Other  shrubs  are  eagerly  eaten  (or  peeled)  by  sheep,  goats 
or  cattle,  and  might  be  brought  to  submission,  in  the  winter  fol- 
lowing the  fruiting  of  the  aristocrats,  by  heavj^  pasturage. 

The  purpose  at  stake,  in  American  Sylviculture,  for  years  to 
<;ome,  cannot  consist  in  homogeneous  regenerations  of  aristocrats 
evenly  covering  the  regeneration  area;  it  can  consist  in  but  that 
form,  quality  and  density  of  regeneration — usually  a  partially  suc- 
cessful regeneration — which  the  forester  considers  financially  most 
desirable  (compare  paragraph  XLI.  E). 

The  extirpation  of  shrubs  by  pickaxe  and  plow  is  usually 
impossible,  unless  it  can  be  combined  with  "  toungya." 

142 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

It  is  often  sufficient  for  the  increase  of  an  aristocratic  regenera- 
tion to  break  or  reduce  the  humus  formed  underneath  the  shrubbage. 

B.  The  battle  against  Treed  trees  trying  to  propagate 
their  kind  in  the  forest  is  usually  more  difficult  to  win  than  that 
against  shrubs  since  the  progeny  of  weed  trees  does  not  stop  to 
compete  with  aristocrats  after  the  thicket  stage.  The  forester  must 
carefully  gauge  the  chances  for  a  final  victory — usually  a  partial 
victory — of  the  aristocrats,  footing  on  a  knowledge  of  their  relative 
height  growth  and  their  relative  shade  endurance. 

Weed  trees  might  be  prevented  from  successful  seeding  by: 

I.  Deadening  or  stump  peeling. 

II.  Actual  removal   (unless  resulting  in  rank  stoolshoots). 
HI.  Sudden  exposure  of  young  progeny  to  draught  or  frost. 

IV.  Maintenance  of  a  dense  humus,  or  of  a  dense  leaf  canopy. 

V.  Pasturage. 

VI.  Stopping  all  logging  operations  during  seed  years  of  the 
weed-tree  species. 

VII.  Fire. 

Any  of  these  remedies  Avill  answer  on  a  regeneration  area  pro- 
vided that  it  inflicts  greater  damage  on  the  weed  trees  than  on 
the  aristocrats,  and  that  the  sviccess  is  fully  commensurate  to  the 
expense. 

A  careful  choice  of  the  type  of  regeneration  (cleared,  shelter- 
wood,  and  advance  growth  types  in  compartments,  strips,  groups 
or  patches)  is,  however,  the  best  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  forester 
against  mobbish  usurpation. 

The  time  may  come  when  the  forester  will  avail  himself  of 
plagues  of  fungi,  vertebrates  and  insects  in  the  struggle  against 
weed  trees. 

Obviously,  where  the  logger,  followed  by  fires,  removes  every 
vestige  of  the  aristocracy  and  every  chance  for  its  reproduction  on 
deteriorated  soil,  there  the  sylvan  battle  is  lost  for  the  forester 
before  it  is  begun. 

Frequently  in  nature's  economy  and  ecology  a  crop  of  weed 
trees  (Birches,  Cottonwoods)  intervenes  between  two  generations  of 
aristocrats.  This  "  rotation  of  crops "  resembles  that  of  agricul- 
ture, and  is  hard  to  explain.  Attempted  explanations  are:  Exhaus- 
tion of  soil  in  mineral  matter  required  by  the  previous  species. 
Presence  of  baccilli,  bacteria,  fungi,  insects,  etc.,  inimical  to  the 
previous  species. 

143 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 
Paragraph  LVIII.     Peda^o^ie  of  the  seed  forest. 

The  term  "  pedagogie  "  comprises  the  principles  and  rules  which 
pertain  to  the  training  of  the  young. 

Forest  pedagogie,  or  forest  tendance,  the  second  part  of  the 
sylviculturists'  activity,  is  of  little  importance  in  America  at  the 
present  time  since  there  are  no  young  forests  at  hand  which  might 
be  trained  profitably.  Forest  protection,  usually  considered  a 
branch  of  forestry,  is  merely  a  branch  of  forest  pedagogie. 

The  following  operations  are  here  treated  imder  the  heading 
"  forest  pedagogie." 

A.  Cleaning  ]   Indirectly     remunerative     acts     or 

B.  Weeding  f       investments. 

C.  Improvement  cuttings   1   Directly  remunerative  acts  yielding 

D.  Thinning  C       a   surplus   revenue. 

E.  Pruning  ]   Indirectly     remunerative     acts     or 

F.  Underplanting  C       investments. 

Tlie  definitions  of  the  terms  "  cleaning,"  "  weeding,"  "  improve-" 
ment  cutting "  and  "  thinning "  are  so  indistinct  that  it  is  often 
difficult  to  dilTerentiate  them.  Definitions  might  be  based  either 
on  the  age  of  the  wood  ci-op  tended,  or  on  the  purpose  aimed  at, 
or  on  the  financial  side  of  the  tending. 

Cleaning  and  weeding  are  applied  for  the  benefit  of  very  young 
growth  and  usually  require  an  investment. 

Pruning,  thinning  and  improvement  cutting  iire  applied  for  the 
benefit  of  thickets  or  polewoods. 

Improvement  cuttings  and  thinnings  usually  furnish  a  surplus 
revenue  whilst  pruning  succeeds  in  but  rare  cases  to  be  directly 
remunerative. 

Mr.  H.  S.  Graves,  in  "  The  principles  of  handling  woodlands," 
applies  the  term  "  improvement  cuttings "  to  any  and  all  cuttings 
primarily  meant  to  improve,  and  not  to  reproduce  the  forest.  His 
definition  abandons  the  distinct  and  restricted  meaning  given  to  tlie 
term  in  the  English  forest  literatvire. 


Paragraph  LIX.     Gleaning  in  seed  forests. 

Cleaning   may   occur   during   the   seedling   stage   and   the   small 
sapling    stage.       It    implies    the    removal    of    saplings    forming    a 
shrubby   advance   growth    (wolves)  ;    or  the   removal  of  undesirable 
144 


THE    ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

stoolshoots;  or  the  removal  of  seedlings  and  saplings  belonging  to 
a  less-desirable  species  competing  for  space  in  a  young  forest.  In 
natural  seed  regenerations,  cleaning  is  particularly  desirable.  In- 
stances: Removing  poor  coppice  shoots  which  oppress  by  faster 
growth  the  valuable  seedlings  of  Yellow  Poplar.  Removing  Birch, 
Fire  Cherry,  Thorns  and  Briars  in  young  plantations  of  White  Pine, 
Yellow  Pine  and  Spruce.  ^A^lere  a  regeneration  area  of  strong  soil 
has  been  binned  previous  to  planting,  the  competition  of  volunteer 
growth  is  frequently  such  as  to  make  cleaning  necessary.  The 
forester  should  take  care,  however,  not  to  extirpate  species  now  of 
little  value,  but  possibly  of  a  fair  future  value. 

In  mixed  regeneration,  cleaning  offers  a  good  means  to  regulate 
the  proportion  of  the  species  admixed.  The  expense  incurred  for 
cleaning  must  be  commensurate  to  the  financial  efTect  of  the  opera- 
tion. Instruments  used  are  axe  and  brush  hook;  also  long-handled 
cleaning  shears. 

Occasionally,  sheep  or  cattle  allowed  to  come  to  pasture  in  the 
woods  do  more  good  by  cleaning  than  harm  by  preying  on  the 
valuable  seedlings. 

Where  the  Spruce  comes  up  "  as  thick  as  'the  hair  on  a  dog " 
the  Saxon  forester  considers  it  wise  to  traverse  the  thicket  by 
narrow  lanes  some  three  feet  wide  and  some  ten  feet  apart. 


Paragraph  LX.     Weeding  in  seed  forests. 

A  plant,  either  herbaceous  or  ligneous,  whicli  has  a  negative 
value  is  a  "  weed."  It  might  be  a  cripple  of  an  otherwise  very 
valuable  species  (fire-crippled  Chestnut  in  Pisgah  Forest),  or  it 
might  belong  to  a  species  having  no  commercial  value  (Rhododen- 
dron, Witch-hazel,  Black  Gum,  Halesia,  Cliinquapin,  Alder,  Beech). 

Weeding  implies  the  removal  of  large  saplings,  poles  and  trees 
having  the  character  of  weeds.  Weeding  may  take  place  before 
regeneration,  or  after  regeneration  has  been  started.  It  may  act 
incidentally  as  a  preparatory  cutting,  a  seeding  cutting  or  a  final 
removal.  It  pays  but  indirectly  since  the  stuff  removed  has  a 
negative  value. 

The  purpose  of  weeding  might  be  the  extirpation  of  sup- 
pressors of  young  growth;  or  an  exchange  of  unhealthy  crooked, 
fire-scalded,  flat-headed  poles  for  new,  vigorous  stump  sprouts 
(Spanish  and  White  Oak  at  Biltmore). 

The  term  "weeding"'  is  not  found  in  books  on  Sylviculture;  it 
145 


AMERICAN    STLVICULTURE 

forms,  however,  under  present  conditions  often  one  of  the  most 
important  and  most  remunerative  sylvicultural  acts. 

Weeds  are  either  girdled  (deadened)  or  cut. 

In  the  case  of  weeds  having  a  diameter  of  over  six  inches, 
girdling  is  often  preferable,  because  cheaper  than  cutting.  More- 
over, the  cutting  of  broad-leafed  weeds  often  tends  to  merely  replace 
the  weed  by  weed  sprouts. 

To  prevent  this,  in  the  case  of  sapling  weeds,  crushing  shears 
might  be  used. 

Some  cottonwoods  cannot  be  extirpated  by  deadening.  In  that 
case,  the  peeling  of  a  strip  of  bark  three  feet  long  at  a  point  two 
feet  above  ground  is  advisable.  Cutting  of  weeds  in  August  reduces 
the  chances  of  their  recovery.  In  the  Adirondacks,  the  weeding  of 
Beech  overshadowing  Spruce  might  be  advisable,  because  remunera- 
tive. 


Paragraph  LXI.     Improvement   cutting   in   seed 
forests. 

A.  Tlie  term  improvement  cutting  -wras  introduced  into 
Indian  practice  by  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis.  Improvement  cuttings  are 
cuttings  for  revenue. 

An  improvement  cutting,  in  the  original  sense  of  the  term, 
extracts  from  irregular  woods: 

I.  Hypermature,  mature  or  dead  trees  still  of  \alue. 

II.  Misshapen  immature  trees. 

III.  Species  of  minor  value. 

rV.  Weeds  of  pole  size  and  tree  size. 

B.  Essential  it  is  for  tlie  character  of  an  improvement 

cutting,  that  it  is  intended  to  result,  on  the  aggregate,  in  a  surplus 
revenue.  Cuttings,  on  the  other  hand,  which  leave  the  premises  in 
a  materially  decreased  financial  value,  can,  of  course,  not  be  con- 
sidered as  improvement  cuttings.  Again,  cuttings  made  at  a 
sacrifice,  merely  with  a  view  to  an  increased  prospective  value  of 
the  forest,  are  "  weedings "  or  "  cleanings "  which  must  be  con- 
sidered as  investments,  like  the  expenses  spent  for  regeneration. 

I.  The  purpose  of  improvement  cuttings  is: 

a.  A  surplus  revenue. 

b.  Improved  financial  prospects  of  the  remaining  crop  carried 
about  by: 

146 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

1.  Removal  of  trees  and  poles  acting  as  suppressors; 

2.  Removal  of  inferior  trees   and  poles  acting  as   competitors; 

3.  Partial  removal  of  a  superstructure  on  a  regenerated  area; 

4.  Removal  of  less  desirable  individuals  acting  as  seed-trees, 
c.  Reduced  danger  from  fire,  fungi  and  insects. 

II.  Kinds  of  improvement  cuttings  are: 

a.  Improvement  cuttings  in  primeval  woods. 

b.  Improvement  cuttings  in  culled  woods. 

III.  Marking:  Trees  and  poles  to  be  removed  in  an  improve- 
ment cutting  must  be  individually  marked  by  the  sylviculturist. 

Generalizing  rules  for  marking  cannot  be  given;  each  tree  or 
pole  must  be  dealt  with  according  to  its  individual  merits  and 
demerits. 

The  marking  of  improvement  cuttings  by  the  forester  is,  con- 
sequently, a  timetaking  affair. 

IV.  Localities:  Irregular,  thin  woods  composed  of  a  multitude 
of  species  deserve  improvement  cuttings. 

The  local  market  must  allow  of  the— at  least  partial — utiliza- 
tion of  suppressing,  competing,  superstructing  and  less  desirable 
individuals. 


Paragraph  LXII.     Thinnings  in  seed  forests. 

Thinnings  proper  are  applicable  exclusively  to  dense  and  fairly 
even-aged  groups  or  woods,  in  the  thicket  stage  and  in  the  pole  stage 
thereof,  always  under  the  proviso  that  a  permanent  road  system 
and  a  nearby  market  allow  of  a  remunerative  outcome  of  the  act. 
In  Pisgah  Forest  thinnings  are  out  of  the  question  as  the  woods 
are  thin  and  irregular.  At  Biltmore,  thinnings  are  made  in  the 
polewoods  of  Yellow  Pine.  Up  north,  from  the  merely  sylvicul- 
tural  standpoint,  thinnings  are  possible  in  the  Jack  Pine  woods,  in 
Balsam  thickets,  on  Black  Spruce  slopes,  in  Lodgepole  Pine 
thickets,  etc. 

Thinnings  are  not  made  to  originate  a  second  growth;  they  are 
made  within  a  second  growth  already  at  hand. 

A.  Purposes   of  thinnings: 

I.  To  develop  the  log  diameter  of  large  saplings  and  poles  at 
a  time  at  which  the  log  axis  has  been  obtained. 

II.  To  increase  the  volume  increment  percentage.  * 

III.  To  increase  the  quality  increment  of  predestined  mess- 
mates. 

147 


A  M  E  R I  C  A  N    S  Y  L  V I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

IV.  To  reduce  the  danger  from  forest  fires,  insect  pests,  fungi 
plagues,  wind,  snow  and  sleet. 

V.  To  remove  cripples  and  wolves. 

VI.  Early  financial  returns. 
Vli.  Reduction  of  investment. 

VIII.  Shortening  of  the  rotation  by  feeding  a  lesser  number  of 
mess-mates  on  a  relatively  larger  amount  of  food  (viz.,  moisture, 
heat,  light,  mineral  matter,  etc.). 

IX.  Regulation  of  the  relative  proportion  of  the  species  in 
mixed  pole  woods. 

X.  Reducing  the  friction,  and  the  consequent  loss  of  side  shoots, 
between  crown  and  crown. 

B.  The  season  for  thinning  depends  upon  local  climate, 
seasonable  prices  of  labor,  advisability  of  peeling  and  intensity  of 
thinning.  Tlie  season  usually  selected  for  thinning  in  Europe  is  the 
late  winter  when  the  main  cuttings  are  completed. 

C.  The  time  for  thinning.  Thinnings  should  begin  in  the 
late  thicket  stage  and  should  be  repeated,  to  begin  with,  in  five-year 
intervals,  say  from  the  year  thirty  to  sixty.  Thereafter  the 
intervals  are  increased  up  to  the  year  eighty  or  ninety.  A  prepara- 
tory cutting,  although  conducted  like  a  thinning,  is  no  thinning, 
since  its  purpose  is  regeneration.  Thinnings  stop  at  the  end  of  the 
pole  stage.    Where  poles  are  non-salable,  thinnings  cannot  be  made. 

To  raise  homogenous  timber,  thinnings  must  be  repeated  at 
intervals  of  four  to  eight  years. 

D.  The  material  obtained  from  a  thinning  may  consist 
of  firewood,  pulp  Avood,  mine  props,  fence  posts,  telephone  poles, 
hop  poles,  hoop  poles,  tool  handles,  bolts  for  spokes,  locust  pins, 
tannin  wood,  etc. 

Twigs  and  stumps  and  material  almost  worthless  should  be 
left  so  as  to  prevent  a  deterioration  of  the  soil  and  so  as  to  stimu- 
late the  bacterial  life  in  the  soil. 

In  European  practice,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  obtained  by 
thinnings  during  the  course  of  a  rotation  per  acre  exceeds  frequently, 
now-a-days,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  obtained  by  the  final  cut. 

The  tool  used  for  thinning  is  tlie  axe  invariably. 

E.  Kinds  of  thinnings.  The  old  doctrine  was:  "Thin  early, 
frequently,   moderately!  " 

Tihis  rule  has  been  gradually  abandoned  during  the  past  twenty 
years.  The  method  of  thinning  depends  on  its  purpose.  William 
Schlich   distinguished  between   quality  thinnings,   made  to   improve 

148 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

the  timber  quality  of  the  trees  left;  and  quantity  thinnings  meant 
to  result  in  the  maximum  production  of  wood  fibre  per  acre  per 
annum. 

If  left  alone,  a  dense  thicket  grows  but  slowly,  the  food  being 
subdivided  among  a  large  number  of  messmates.  Toward  the 
beginning  of  forestry,  sylviculturists  were  satisfied  with  "burying 
the  dead  and  moribund  poles."  Later  on,  thinnings  were  extended 
into  the  suppressed  classes.  The  European  experiment  stations 
are  now  deeply  engaged  in  working  out  the  "  best "  method  of 
thinning.  Obviously,  no  method  can  be  best  for  all  sorts  of  species 
and  for  all  sorts  of  local  conditions. 

I.  The  German  and  Austrian  experiment  stations  distinguish 
between : 

Grade  1.  Light  thinnings,  removing  the  dead  or  dying. 

Grade  2.  Moderate  thinnings,  removing  the  dead,  dying  and 
suppressed. 

Grade  3.  Heavy  thinnings,  removing  also  the  condominating 
trees,  or  such  of  them  which  are  not  absolutely  essential  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  main  leaf  canopy  overhead. 

Grade  4.  Very  strong  thinnings,  placing  a  limited  number  of 
dominating  and  predominating  trees  in  a  free  position. 

Results  so  far  published  allot  the  maximum  volume  production 
(exclusive  of  branches)  per  acre  to  Grade  3.  All  these  four  grades 
might  be  characterized  as  "  thinnings  from  below "  (Eclaircies  par 
le  bas). 

II.  The  French  sylviculturists  are  advocating,  on  the  other 
hand,  "thinnings  from  above"   (Eclaircies  par  le  haut). 

The  Frenchmen,  as  a  matter  of  principle,  leave  alone  the  sup- 
pressed lower  stems,  protecting  by  them  the  quality  of  the  soil 
as  well  as  the  clearness  of  boles  Avithin  the  predestined  class.  In 
addition,  they  relieve  the  tension,  friction  and  struggle  for  food 
amongst  the  dominators  by  culling  out  the  worst  developed  domina- 
tors,  or  a  percentage  of  those  dominators  which  stand  too  close 
together,  and  which  have,  consequently,  one-sided  crowns. 

The  objection  to  the  French  method  lies  in  the  following  points: 

a.  Material  without  increment  is  left  on  the  ground. 

b.  Weaklings  and  dying  trees  left  increase  the  dangers  threaten- 
ing the  forest. 

c.  Greater  difficulty  in  marking  trees  to  be  removed. 
However,    where    quality    increment    is    at    stake,    the    French 

method  seems  highly  advisable. 

149 


AMERICAN    8  Y  L  V I C  U  L  T  U  K  E 

III.  European  opinions  continue  to  differ  widely  with  reference 
to  the  proper  severity  of  thinnings. 

After  Martin,  the  thinnings  must  leave  the  sectional  area  of 
the  forest  constant  by  withdrawing,  from  a  given  age  on,  periodi- 
cally the  surplus  of  sectional  area  formed  by  growth. 

After  Schwappaeh  and  Wimmenauer,  the  normal  yield  of  thin- 
nings, expressed  in  per  cent,  of  the  final  yield  obtainable  under  a 
rotation  of  100  years,  should  be  for  Beech  and  for  Scotch  Pine 
respectively : 

Beech  after  Scotch  Pine  after 

Soil.  Schwappaeh.  Wimmenauer. 

Best 147%  181% 

Medium   137%  145% 

Poor 124%  115% 

After  Fricke,  the  relative  length  of  the  crown  and  of  the  bole 
free  from  green  limbs  is  the  best  criterion  of  thinnings  properly 
made.  At  least  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire  length  of  the  tree  should 
be  clad  in  green  limbs. 

After  Heck,  no  rule  can  be  given  the  manner  and  the  severity 
of  a  thinning  depending  on  local  and  even  personal  factors  ("  liberty 
in  thinnings").  No  two  trees  being  alike,  a  lack  of  a  method  is 
better  than  a  method  of  thinning. 

IV.  Radically  different  from  the  systems  of  thinnings  hereto- 
fore prevailing  are  the  revolutionary  views  proffered  by  Borggreve. 

Borggreve  thinnings  interfere  or  remove  none  but  the  pre- 
dominators  and  dominators — the  biggest  poles — closest  to  the  best 
log  size.  Such  thinnings  begin  but  at  the  year  sixty  of  a  woodlot; 
they  withdraw  every  ten  years  one-seventh  of  the  stems  which, 
being  the  largest,  contain  about  cme-quarter  of  the  total  volume. 

Of  course,  high  and  early  revenue  is  secured  by  such  practice. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  trees  removed  are  those  growing  at  the  best 
rate  of  interest.  (From  the  sixtieth  year  on  90%  of  the  annual 
accretion  in  a  woodlot  is  supplied  by  the  40%  [in  number]  of  the 
largest  trees). 

The  advisability  of  a  Borggreve  thinning  largely  depends  on 
the  reproductive  power  of  a  wood  thus  treated.  In  the  case  of 
Yellow  Pine'  and  on  poor  soil,  the  reproductive  power  of  a  wood 
seems  too  small  to  allow  of  a  speedy  repletion  of  the  growing  stock 
and  of  its  leaf  canopy.  Much  "  food "  goes  to  waste  after  Borg- 
greve thinnings.     In  the  case  of  White  Pine  and  Spruce,  the  danger 


150 


THE   ART    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

from  storm  and  sleet  must  be  badly  dreaded  after  Borggreve  thin- 
nings. 

V.  Wagener,  at  the  year  twenty-five  of  a  forest,  makes  a 
thinning  called  "  crown-isolation,"  surrounding  the  crown  of  each 
predestined  tree  with  an  air  space  two  and  one-half  feet  wide. 
The  dominating  trees  left  after  the  Wagener  thinning  should  stand 
seven  yards  apart.  Suppressed  trees  are  not  interfered  with.  Such 
cuttings  are  much  heavier  than  Borggreve's.  At  the  year  twenty- 
five  the  bole  of  the  dominators  is  not  fully  developed.  The  domi- 
nators  left  stand  in  an  orchard-like  position  and  show  a  very  rapid 
diameter  growth.  Usually,  but  one  log  is  expected  to  be  obtained 
from  the  bole;  it  is  obtained,  however,  within  an  extremely  short 
rotation. 

Obviously,  for  coniferous  woods  exposed  to  storm  and  of  poor 
quality  if  wide  ringed,  the  Wagener  system  is  out  of  the  question. 
The  Wagener  thinnings,  unless  they  result  in  a  heavy  growth  of 
adventitious  branches,  might  be  used  to  advantage  for  Black  Wal- 
nut, Black  Cherry  and  Oaks. 

VI.  American  forestry  has  not  had  occasion  to  adopt  a  term- 
inology descriptive  of  the  various  possible  grades  of  thinnings. 
We  might  distinguish: 

a.  "  Rectifications,"  correcting  a  previous  negligence,  to  be  sub- 
divided as: 

1.  "  Burials,'    removing  the  dead  and  the  dying. 

2.  "  Rescues,"  meant  to  save  from  death  some  valuable  mess- 
mates. 

3.  "  Revivals,"  reviving  a  stand  which  has  been  kept  overstocked. 

b.  "  Anticipations,"  anticipating  the  possibility  of  future  crowd- 
ing, to  be  subdivided  as: 

1.  "Incitements,"  when  the  growth  is  to  be  incited  particularly. 

2.  "  Interferences,"  when  the  completeness  of  the  leaf-cover 
overhead  is  purposely  destroyed. 

3.  "  Isolations,"  when  the  crowns  of  the  individual  trees  are 
purposely  isolated. 

VII.  In  mixed  forests  such  species  as  reach  maturity  during  the 
pole  stage  might  be  removed  from  a  late-maturing  remainder  by 
way  of  thinnings;  e.  g..  Locust  and  Sassafras  from  a  pole  wood  of 
Yellow  Poplar;  Hickory  when  reaching  spoke  bolt  size  from  a  mix- 
ture with  Oaks;  Chestnut  when  reaching  telephone  pole  size  from 
a  mixture  with  Oaks,  Black  Gum  and  Yellow  Poplar. 


151 


AMERICAl^     SYLVICULTURE    " 

Paragraph  LXIII.     Pruning  in  seed  forests. 

A.  The  object  at  stake  might  be: 

L  I'loduction  of  logs  free  from  knots, — especially  free  from 
dead  knots.  Live  or  sound  knots  measuring  one  and  one-quarter 
inches  in  diameter  affect  the  lumber  price  but  slightly.  The  pre- 
vention of  dead  knots  is,  therefore,  most  important.  No  topshoot 
is  formed  without  side  shoots,  and  no  section  of  a  tree  bole  is 
free  from  branches  and  free  from  branch  knots.  Hence  the  advisa- 
bility of  pruning  the  boles  of  such  species  which  develop  branches 
of  large  diameter  and  of  great  persistence  when  dead.  Branches 
(excepting  adventitious  branches)  invariably  start  from  the  central 
core. 

II.  Increased  height  growth. 

III.  The  production  of  cylindrical  boles  of  a  large  form  figure 
(Pressler's  law  of  bole  formation).  Obviously,  objects  "II"  and 
"  III  "  are  not  obtained  but  by  the  removal  of  living  branches. 

IV.  The  reduction  of  the  shade  falling  on  u  young,  promising 
undergrowth. 

V.  Tlie  reduction  of  danger  from  fire  in  coniferous  woods  close 
to  public  roads. 

B.  Species:  Hardwoods  suffer  less  from  the  removal  of 
green  branches  than  softwoods,  (xreen  branches  of  over  five  inches 
in  diameter  should  not  be  removed  at  all,  except  in  case  "  IV," 
owing  to  the  certainty  of  subsequent  disease. 

Oak  heals  best  of  all  kinds  the  wound  inflicted  by  pruning; 
Ash  is  likely  to  split;  Maple  is  slow  in  closing  a  woiuid;  Birch  soon 
shows  disease;  Yellow  Pine  covers  the  wound  quickly  with  rosin. 

C.  Actual  European  practice: 

The  practice  restricts  pruning  to  the  object  given  under  A.  I., 
and  within   that  limit  to: 

I.  Dead  branches. 

II.  Polewoods  forty  years  to  sixty  years  old. 

III.  Two  log  lengths  from  the  ground. 

IV.  The  specimens  presumably  predestined  to  reach  the  end  of 
the  rotation. 

Pruning  extends  to  a  height  reaching  up  to  forty  feet,  is  done 
by  help  of  ladders,  of  a  climbing  apparatus  (not  climbing  irons) 
or  of  saws  attached  to  very  long  polos.  The  best  saw  is  the 
"  Alers  "  construction. 

In  France,  sharp,  curved  blades  are  preferred  to  saws,  since 
they  produce  a  smoother  cut. 

152 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

The  branch  is  cut  off  as  close  to  the  bole  as  possible.  Large 
branches  are  cut  off  in  sections  to  prevent  the  bole  from  being 
scarred.  In  the  case  of  broad-leafed  species  and  in  the  case  of 
live  branches,  large  wounds  are  always  tarred.  Tarring  in  spring 
is  impossible. 

Expense  at  Biltmore  for  pruning  Yellow  Pine  to  a  height  of 
sixteen  feet  is  two  cents  per  tree. 

The  best  months  for  pruning  are  the  months  at  which  the 
sap  is  down. 

The  advisability  of  pruning  depends  largely  on  the  prospective 
price— difference   between   clear  lumber   and   knotty   lumber. 

Pruning  at  a  late  date,  say  twenty  years  before  cutting,  is  of 
no  use.  Theoretically  it  is  best  to  remove  dead  branches  in  the 
year  of  their  death. 

Where  pruning  is  practiced,  natural  pruning  produced  by  dense 
planting  and  hence  dense  planting  itself  might  be  spared,  a  propo- 
sition which  cannot  be  indorsed  generally. 

Professor  Knapp,  Eric  Forest  School,  urges  the  removal  of  side 
buds   (notably  for  White  Pine)  and  of  young  side  shoots. 

Literature:  Translation  of  DeCourval  by  Massachusetts  For- 
estry Association. 


Paragraph  LXIV.  Underplantin^  in  seed  forests. 

An  upper  story  of  higli  forest  miglit  Se  underplanted  during  the 
pole  stage  either  artificially  or  by  natural  seed  regeneration."  In 
the  latter  case,  weed  species  may  answer  the  purpose.  Underplant- 
ing  may  improve  the  timber  quality  of  the  upper  growth.  It  usually 
does  improve  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

Frequently  the  purpose  at  stake  in  underplanting  is  that  of 
fully  utilizing  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  and  of  the  atmos- 
phere at  a  time  when  it  is  not  entirely  used  by  the  upper  story  of 
growth.  In  that  ease,  underplanting  cannot  be  considered  as  a 
method  of  forest  pedagogic. 


A.  The  species  to  be  underplanted  are,  notably,  light 
demanders;  for  instance.  Yellow  Pines;  Oaks;  Hickories;  Larches: 
Yellow  Poplar,  etc.  In  the  primeval  woods,  Long-leaf  Pine,  Yellow 
Pine,  Yellow  Poplar,  etc.,  show  a  natural  undergrowth. 

In  practice,  the  Avood  to  be  underplanted  is  forty  to  sixty  years 
old.      Heavy   "  tliinnings    from    below "   precede    underplanting.' 
153 


AMERICAN     SYLVICULTURE 

B.  The    species    nsed    for    artificial    nnderplanting    are 

shade  bearers  and,  if  possible,  soil  improvers,  notably  Beech,  Hard 
Maple,  Fir,  Lawson's  Cypress,  White  Pine,  Chestnut,  Hemlock,  etc. 

Spruce  is  now  disliked  for  imderplanting,  since  it  affects  the 
growth  of  the  upper  story  unfavorably.  Seedlings  ona>or  two  years 
old  are  commonly  used  for  underplanting.  Dogwood,  Black  Gum, 
Witch  Hazel,  Chinquapin,  Witch  Hopple,  possibly  Kalmia  and 
Rhododendron  might  be  used  for  underplanting  where  mere  soil 
protection  is  desired. 

The  primeval  hardwoods  of  the  Alleghanies  are  frequently  and 
densely  underplanted  with  a  low  jungle  formed  by  Ericaceae. 


Paragraph  LXV.     Key  to  the  forms  of  seed  for- 
ests. 

That  general  condition  of  a  forest  is  termed  its  "'  sylvic  form  " 
which  is  brought  about  by  its  type  or  types  of  past  regeneration, 
hence  by  its  display  of  age  classes  and  by  the  arrangement  of  the 
species  exhibited. 

The  treatment  allotted  to  the  "  form  "  by  the  forester,  provided 
that  it  is  a  systematic  treatment,  is  termed  its  "  sylvicultural 
system." 

The  multitude  of  forms  found  in  primeval  nature  is  innumer- 
able, since  the  "  molds "  from  which  the  forms  are  cast,  vary 
indefinitely  with  every  wrinkle  of  the  topography  and  every  varia- 
tion of  the  climate.  * 

Man's  interference  has  tended — at  least  temporarily — to  further 
increase  the  multitude  of  forms. 

It  is  a  hard  task  to  differentiate  amongst  this  huge  collection 
of  forms  and  to  arrange  the  collection  into  "  orders,"  "  families," 
"  genera  "  and  "  species  "  composing  it. 

A  priori,  two  great  groups  of  forms  might  be  singled  out, 
namely,  "  primeval  forms "  the  product  of  unbiased  nature  and 
"second  growth  forms"  the  product  of  nature  influenced  by  man's 
interference.  This  human  interference  might  have  been  of  a  char- 
acter utterly  disregarding  sylvicultural  ends  ("culled  forms");  or 
human  art  might  have  tried,  successfully  or  unsuccessfully,  to  lend 
a  helping  hand  ("cultured  forms"). 

The  manner  in  which  the  various  age  classes  of  the  forest  are 
mixed  within  the  "  orders  of  forms  "  is  of  paramoimt  interest.  On 
this  manner  of  mixing  depend: 

I.  The  manner  and  the  possibility  of  remunerative  lumbering. 
154 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

II.  The  type  and  the  expense  of  regeneration  and  pedagogie. 

III.  The  dangers  from  insects,  fungi,  fire,  storm,  etc.,  threaten- 
ing the  forest. 

The  functions  of  the  mixture  are  so  all-important  in  forestry,. 
that  the  synthesis  of  the  age-classes  must  serve  as  a  main  criterion 
in  the  construction  of  a  key  to  the  sylvicultural  forms. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  age  d'iflferences  of,  say,, 
twenty  years  are  very  conspicuous  during  the  seedling,  sapling  and 
pole  stage  of  the  forest;  whilst  the  keenest  eye  cannot  detect  these- 
same  differences  in  a  forest  of  veterans. 

In  forests  exhibiting  a  large  variety  of  species  the  analysis  of 
the  form  presents  particular  difficulties.  Such  is  the  case  by  far 
more  frequently  in  primeval  than  in  culled  or  cultured  high  forest. 
Sometimes  a  distinct  form  of  a  minor,  scattering  species  appears  to 
be  "grafted"  upon  a  distinct  form  of  one  or  several  major,  gregari- 
ous species  {"grafted  forms").  Where  two  distinct  forms  in  mix- 
ture occupy  more  equal  shares  (not  minor  and  major  shares)  in  the- 
aggregate  display,  we  may  speak  of  "  icedded  forms."  "  Husband 
and  wife,  though  distinct  individuals,  unite  on  equal  terms  for  a 
life  in  a  household  of  their  own." 

Synopsis  of  "Forms  of  Seed  Forests." 

A.  Primeval  forms  of  seed  forests. 

a.  Primeval  selection  form. 

,      ,,  .  ,  ^  1.  pauciveudible 

b.  Primeval  group  form. 

-r,  .  ,  J.  J.    f'  ■'i-   multivendible 

0.  Primeval  compartment  form. 

J    T,  ■  1      J.       1      J    r-  3.   omnivendible 

d.  Primeval  standard  form. 

B.  Culled  forms  of  seed  forests. 

a.  Culled  selection  form. 

b.  Culled  group  form.  l.  axe  culled 

c.  Culled  compartment  form. 

d.  Culled  standard  form.  2.  fire  ciilled 

C.  Cultured  forms  of  seed  forests. 

^a.  Even-aged  main  forms,  emanating  from 

1.  cleared  compartment  type  of  n.   s.  r. 

2.  short  time  shelter  -wood  compartment  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

3.  planting 

4.  underplanting 

b.  Uneven-aged  main  forms,  emanating  from 

5.  long  time  shelter  -n'ood  compartment  type  of  n.   s.  r. 

6.  strip  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

7.  group  type  of  n.   s.  r. 

8.  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

c.  Auxiliary  forms. 

9.  standard  form 

10.  t-wo   storied  seed  forest. 

155 


A  M  E  R  I  C  A  \     S  Y  T.  V  I  C  L  L  T  l"  R  E 

A.  Primeval   forms    of   seed   forests. 

I.  Characteristic  for  all  primeval  forms  is  a  relative  preponder- 
ance of  tlie  hypermature  age-classes  (veterans)  ;  a  relative 
defieiejiey  of  the  youngest  age-classes  (seedlings,  saplings  and  poles); 
the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  dead,  decaying  or  unsound  speci- 
mens only  temporarily  excelled  in  the  "  culled  forms ;  "  a  large 
number  of  dead  corpses  of  trees  spread  flat  on  the  ground;  irregular 
confines  of  the  parts  composing  the  aggregates;  irregular  composi- 
tion of  such  parts  by  age-classes  and  species,  many  of  which  may 
be  Aveeds;  usually  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  on  the  ground;  usually 
the  presence  of  a  few  strikingly  large  and  spotless  trees  overtower- 
ing  their  neighbors;  absolute  lack  of  permanent  means  of  trans- 
portation. 

II.  Subdivision  of  primeval  forms  of  seed  forests. 

According  to  the  relative  share  held  by  species  of  "  weed  trees  " 
in  the  mixture  of  species  composing  them,  the  primeval  forests 
might  be  subdivided  into  pauci-  multi-,  and  omnivendible  forests. 
Primeval  woods,  in  which  but  10%  of  the  timber  species  command 
a  value,  might  be  called  "  paucivendible  ";  at  50%,  the  term  "  multi- 
A'endible "  and  at  approximately  100%,  the  term  "  omnivendible " 
might  be  applied. 

The  vendibility  of  the  members  composing  the  forest,  whilst  it 
controls  the  possibility  and  the  manner  of  its  sylvicultural  man- 
agement, does  not  influence  in  the  slightest  degree  the  actual  orig- 
inal display  of  the  forest. 

It  will  be  best,  consequently,  to  subjoin  the  viewpoint  of 
vendibility  to  the  viewpoint  of  actual  composition  of  the  forest 
as  displayed  in  the  size  of  its  composing  parts — notably  of  its  age- 
classes. 

Thus  we  arrive  at: 

a.  A  selection  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  mixed 
by  trees  or  small  patches — a  very  uneven-aged  form; 

b.  A  group  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  segregated 
in  groups   occupying  from   one-tenth   to   four   acres; 

c.  A  compartment  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  segre- 
gated in  large,  coherent  areas  (coves,  slopes)  covering  from  twenty 
to  one  hundred  acres — a  very  even-aged  form  of  forest. 

The  epideta  "  paucivendible,"  "  multivendible  "  and  "  omnivend- 
ible "  added  to  the  terms  "  selection  form,"  "  group  form  "*  and 
"  compartment  form "  readily  explain,  in  crude  lines,  the  sylvi- 
cultural as  well  as  the  economic  display  of  a  primeval  forest. 

The  groups  or  the  compartments  often  show  a  sprinkling  of 
15G 


THE   ART    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

huge  trees  known  as  "  standards  "  or  "  reserves  " — the  latter  term 
is  used  by  H.  S.  Graves — having  a  much  higher  age  and  frequently 
belonging  to  a  species  different  from  that  or  those  forming  the 
main  growing  stock.      Instances  are: 

Yellow  Poplar  standards  in  Beech  compartments; 

White  Pine  standards  in  Balsam  compartments; 

Douglas  Eir  standards  in  compartments  of  Sitka  Spruce; 

Yellow  Pine  standards  in  Oak  groups; 

Cuban  Pine  standards  in  Cuban  Pine  groups; 

Long-leaf  Pine  standards  in  Cuban  Pine  groups. 

Naturally,  where  the  standards  belong  to  several  age-classes  and 
do  not  form  a  distinct  age-class  by  themselves,  we  merely  meet  a 
selection  form. 

Standards  in  primeval  Avoods  are  frequent  enough  to  call  for 
the  singling  out  of  a  fourth  form,  namely: 

d.  A  standard  form,  which  might  be  again  subdivided  into: 

A  form  pf  standards  (reserves)  over  groups; 

A  form  of  standards   (reserves)   over  compartments. 

A  variety  of  the  latter  subform  found  in  the  Chaparal  thickets 
of  California  and  in  the  Calmia  thickets  of  North  Carolina  might 
be   termed  "  form   of  standards   over   paucivendible   compartments." 

The  two-storied  seed  forest  is  often  formed  by  two  or  more 
distinct  species  appearing  in  distinct  forms.  It  had  better  be  con- 
sidered as  a  combination  of  forms,  one  form  being  grafted  upon 
another  (e.  g.,  compartments  of  Douglas  Fir  grafted  upon  the 
selection  form  of  Hemlock) ;  or  one  form  being  wedded  to  another 
(e.  g.,  group  form  of  Long-leaf  Pine  wedded  with  compartments  of 
Black  Jack  Oak). 

The  term  "  two-storied  seed  forest "  properly  applies  to  a 
permanent  combination  of  two  distinct  tiers  of  trees  (representing 
one  or  more  species),  each  tier  emanating  from  regeneration  by  the 
compartment  type  of  n.  s.  r.  It  is  a  compartment  form  wedded 
to  a  compartment  form,  never  found  in  primeval  nature. 

III.  Treatment  of  primeval  forests: 

The  only  treatment  required  is  of  a  protective,  not  of  a  strictly 
sylvicultural  character. 

As  long  as  the  forest  retains  its  primeval  display,  unhampered 
by  human  interference,  the  regeneration  of  the  primeval  selection 
form  is  of  the  cleared,  shelterwood  or  advance  growth  selection  type; 
the  regeneration  of  the  primeval  group  form  is  of  the  cleared  or 
advance  growth  group  type;  and  the  regeneration  of  the  primeval 
compartment  form  is  usually  of  the  cleared  compartment  type. 

157 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

Obviously,  with  the  beginning  of  logging  operations  the 
•"  primeval  forms  "  are  gradually,  piece  by  piece,  changed  into 
"culled  forms,"  the  display  of  -which  largely  depends  on  vendi- 
bility and  on  fires. 

The  cases  are  rare  in  which  the  primeval  forest  enters  at  once 
or  directly  into  a  cultured  form  (Pisgah  Forest  of  the  Biltmore 
Estate;  Xe-ha-sa-ne  park;  government  forests  in  Galizia)  without 
passing  through  the  stage  of  "  culled  form."  In  the  large  majority 
of  cases,  the  primeval  woods  pass  through  "  culled  forms "  into 
"cultured  forms,"  in  the  course  of  generations  of  men  and  of  trees. 

B.  Culled   forms   of  seed  forests: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  culled  forms  of  the  seed  forests  is  the 
absence  of  mature  or  maturing  trees  belonging  to  a  desirable 
species;  the  preponderance  of  weeds,  unsound  trees,  undesirable 
species  and  of  trees  and  poles  badly  crippled  by  the  logging  opera- 
tions. Only  diseased  trees  or  relative  small  trees  of  the  desirable 
species  are  left  to  seed  the  ground. 

Advance  growth  is  invariably  spoiled  where  the  form  is  omni- 
vendible  or  multivendible. 

Characteristic  for  the  culled  forms  is,  further,  the  presence  of 
large  amounts  of  debris  and  of  a  parched  humus,  or  else  of  the 
ashes  thereof. 

As  a  rule,  the  culled  forms  show  death  and  scars  due  to  forest 
fires. 

Frequently,  the  culled  forest  displays  an  entirely  new  assort- 
ment of  the  species  composmg  it,  the  previously  prevailing  species 
having  been  removed  by  logging.  It  is  more  "  mobbish "  than  the 
primeval  forest. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  the  culled  forms  of  seed  forests: 

The  culled  forest  is  usually  more  uniform  than  the  primeval 
forest  from  which  it  emanates,  owing  to  the  uniform  character  of 
the  logging  operations.  Still,  the  compartment  form,  group  form 
and  selection  form  originally  exhijjited  are  usually  retained. 

In  the  compartment  form  and  in  the  group  form  a  few  worth- 
less trees  or  veterans  left  standing  and  continuing  to  live  frequently 
recall  the  "  form  of  standards  in  high  forest "  or  the  "  form  of 
imderplanted  high  forest."  (Compare  C,  II,  b,  of  .the  same 
paragraph.) 

III.  Treatment  of  the  culled  seed  forests: 

Where  fires  are  kept  out,  the  chances  for  seed  regeneration  are 
good — unusually  good — owing  to  the  condition  of  the  seed-bed  and 
to  the  unlimited  food  supply  available  for  the  seedlings. 
158 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

In  the  case  of  Yellow  Pines,  light  fires  seem  even  helpful  to. 
n.  s.  r. 

Since  the  valuable  species  form,  however,  the  minority  amongst 
the  seed- trees,  the  worthless  and  less  valuable  kinds  usually  prevail 
in  the  young  growth  formed  after  culling.  Cleaning  and  weeding 
are  required  to  improve  the  prospects  of  the  minority  composed  of 
noble  species.  Besides,  improvement  cuttings  are  indicated  in  the 
culled  forms :  "  The  culled  form  is  the  form  requiring  improvement 
•cuttings." 

The  "  aristocrats  "  removed  by  the  axe  return  frequently  after 
a  score  or  two  of  years,  the  rash  "mob"  then  acting  as  nurse-trees 
or  as  ushers. 

Wliere  heavy  and  extensive  fires  have  swept  the  culled  forest 
originally  consisting  of  exacting  species,  patient  waiting  alone  can 
secure  conditions  more  favorable  to  aristocratic  regeneration.  Fires 
frequently  convert  a  seed  forest  of  hardwoods  into  a  sprout  forest. 

The  younger  age-classes  sufl'er  more  from  lire  than  the  older 
age-classes.  A  fire-swept,  culled  forest  is  deficient,  at  least  tem- 
porarily, in  seedlings,  saplings  and  small  poles.  A  few  years  after 
a  fire,  the  culled  forest  often  displays  the  features  of  the  under- 
planted  form  of  high  forest  (Par.  LXV.  C.  II.  b.)  or  of  the  composite 
forest    (Par.  LXXIII). 

C.  Cultnred  forms  of  seed  forests: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  cultured  forms  of  the  seed  forests 
is  great  uniformity;  lack  of  hypermature,  unsound  and  misshapen 
aristocrats;  lack  of  weed-trees;  lack  of  coppice  shoots;  complete 
•cover  overhead;  multi-  or  omni-vendibility ;  permanent  means  of 
transportation. 

The  cultured  forest  does  not  require  weeding  or  improvement 
cuttings  for  the  reason  that  cleanings  and  early  thinnings  have 
prevented  the  development  of  weed-trees  and  wolf-trees,  whilst  the 
hypermature  veteran  has  been  removed  long  ago. 

If  the  culled  form  is  "  the  form  of  improvement  cuttings,"  the 
■cultured  form  might  be  termed  "  the  form  of  thinnings." 

II.  Subdivision  of  cultured  seed  forests: 

a.  Main  cultured  forms  of  seed  forests: 

1.  Even-aged  cultured  forms,  when  the  age-classes  mixed  within 
a,  compartment  differ  by  not  to  exceed  twenty-five  years. 

aa.  Form  emanating  from  the  cleared  compartment  type  of 
Ti.  s.  r. 

bb.  Form  emanating  from  the  short-time  shelterwood  compart- 
Tnent  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  periods  of  regeneration  not  exceeding 
twenty-five   years.  jgg 


A  il  E  E  I  C  A  X    S  Y  L  ^  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

cc.  Form  raised  by  planting  seeds  or  seedlings  over  whole 
compartments. 

dd.  Form  raised  by  underplanting  seeds  or  seedlings  over 
whole  compartments,  followeti  l>y  (gradual)  removal  of  the  super- 
structing  trees  within  less  than  twenty-live  years. 

2.  Uneven-aged  cultured  forms,  when  the  age-classes  mixed 
within  a  compartment  differ  by  over  twenty-five  years. 

aa.  Form  emanating  from  the  long-time  shelterwood  compart- 
ment type  of  n.  s.  r. 

bb.  Form  emanating  from  strip  types,  either  restocked  by 
n.  s.  r.  or  by  planting. 

ce.  Form  emanating  from  group  types  of  n.  s.  r.,  or  from 
planted  groujis. 

dd.  Form  emanating  from  selection  types  of  n.  s.  r. 

6.  Auxiliary  cultured  forms  of  seed  forest: 

aa."  Form  of  standards  in  seed  forest,  when  a  limited  number 
of  trees  are  left  to  grow  amongst  and  with  the  young  growth  for 
a   longer  or  shorter  number   of   years. 

The  standards  might  be  left  either  in  scattering  groups  or 
indiA'idually  scattered  over  the  second  growth.  In  the  latter  case, 
none  but  storm -firm  species  will  answer.  It  is  wise  to  leave  the 
standards  in  the  proximity  of  roads  so  as  to  allow  their  removal 
without  inflicting  damage  on  the  young  growth.  Species  well 
adapted  for  standards  are:  Yellow  Pines,  Larches,  White  Oaks, 
Y'ellow  Poplar,  Black  Locust,  Hickory,  Walnut,  Black  Cherry. 
Shade-bearers  and  flat-rooted  species  will  not  answer  the  purpose. 

It  is  unwise  to  leave  standards  unprepared  by  the  preceding 
cuttings  for  the  life  in  the  open.  Standards  set  suddenly  free  Avill 
cover  themselves  rapidly  with  adventitious  branches,  will  grow  stag- 
headed,  will  suffer  from  storm  and  sleet,  and  will  die  without  yield- 
ing the  results  for  which  they  were  left. 

Where  the  standards  shade  the  young  growth  too  badly,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  remove  their  lower  live  branches. 

The  number  of  standards  left  per  acre  does  not  usually  exceed 
twenty-five.  Very  good  soil  and  short  rotations  allow  of  an  in- 
creased number.  Standards  may  be,  but  need  not  be,  of  the  same 
species   which  forms  the  undergrowth. 

Where  the  standards  do  not  belong,  approximately,  to  one  and 
the  same  age-class,  there  the  standard  form  bastardizes  with  the 
uneven-aged  forms  emanating  from  the  group-type  or  from  the 
selection  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

bb.  Form    of    two-storied    seed    forest,    when    an    upjier    and    a 
lower  leaf  canopy  is  maintained  in  distinctly  separate  tiers. 
160 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Species  adapted  to  form  the  lower  leaf  canopy  are;  Beech, 
Hard  Maple,  Blaclc  Gum,  Firs,  Hemlocks.  "The  species  in  the  upper 
story  had  better  have  a  light-demanding  character.  The  form  is 
created  by  raising  a  polewood  (even-aged)  of  Yellow  Pine,  Oak, 
Hickory,  Larch,  etc.;  by  early  and  heavy  thinnings  from  below;  by 
very  heavy  thinnings  after  the  completion  of  the  principal  height 
growth  (year  forty  to  sixty)  ;  and  bj^  planting  at  the  same  time 
either  seeds  or  preferably  seedlings  of  shade-bearing  species.  Should 
the  undergrowth  catch  up  witn  the  upper  growth,  either  the  one 
or  the  other  must  be  removed.  The  undergrowth  preserves  the  fer- 
tility of  tlie  soil  b3'  thorough  shading,  by  the  formation  of  a 
mixed  humus  and  by  increased  leaf-fall.  It  improves  the  bole- 
quality  of  the  upper  growth,  the  crowns  of  the  lower  growth 
holding  the  boles  of  the  upper  in  close  embrace.  In  addition,  it 
prevents  any  part  of  me  timber-producing  factors  of  the  localicy 
(atmospiiere,  light,  moisture,  soil)  from  lying  unutilized.  Usually 
tlie  undergrowth  produces  firewood,  the  upper  growth  timber. 

The  so-called  "  Seebacn's  modified  high  forest "  has  Beech  in 
the  upper  as  well  as  in  the  lower  story.  The  lower  story  la 
obtained  from  self-sown  seed  of  the  upper  story  alter  very  heavy 
thinning.  Under  and  upper  growth  are  finally  utilized  in  the  same 
year  or  in  the  same  period  of  years. 

III.  Treatment  of  cultured  seed  forests. 

Regeneration  in  the  cultured  form  of  seed  forest  takes  place 
in  any  of  the  types  of  n.  s.  r.,  or  by  planting  seeds  and  seedlings. 
As  a  rule,  natural  regeneration  is  now  combined  with  partial  plant- 
ing. Cleaning  and  thinning  are  usually  indicated,  whilst,  as  stated, 
weeding  and   improvement  cutting  are  not  required. 


Paragraph  LXVI.    Critical  remarks  on  the  forms 
of  seed  forests. 

A.  Attitude  of  the  investor: 

It  is  almost  amusing  to  observe  the  difference  of  attitudes 
which  the  statesman,  the  lumberman  and  the  forester  show  with 
respect  to  the  terms  "  prilneval, '  "  culled  "  and  "  cultured  "  forests. 

Still,  all  of  these  forests  are  justifiable,  at  least  temporarily, 
and  usually  justified  by  the  economic  conditions  evolving  them. 

I.  The   primeval   forest   seems    to   be   the   "  forest   in   economic 
stagnation."     Its   production   is   no   greater   than   that   of   barrens; 
it    is    nil.      Still,    fortunes    have    been    made    by    many    investors, 
161 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

buying  and  retaining  primeval  forests  for  their  own  benefit  and 
incidentally  for  the  benefit  of  later  generations  of  men.  With  every 
parcel  of  primeval  forest  destroyed,  the  value  of  the  balance  left 
increases  in  estimation  and  in  actual  usefulness. 

Sylviculturally,  no  forest  requires  a  more  minute  and  more 
painstaking  treatment  than  the  primeval  forest,  when  its  conversion 
into  a  cultured  foiest  is  at  stake.  Still,  the  small  price  obtainable 
for  its  products  defies  any  attempt  at  a  remunerative  outcome 
of  heavj^  sylvicultural  «utlays.  What  is  the  use  of  safeguarding 
or  producing  a  second  growth,  by  sylvicultural  acts,  which  is  devoid 
of  any  prospective  value,  or  which  is  of  a  value  inferior  to  the 
expense  required  to  safeguard  it  or  to  produce  it  ? 

Thus,  sylviculturally  as  well  as  financially  it  seems  very  fre- 
quently best  to  leave  the  primeval  wood  unattended,  unregenerated, 
unconverted,  for  the  time  being. 

When  the  average  acre  of  primeval  forest  commands,  in  a  given 
locality,  a  price  of  $100  or  more,  its  owner  can  begin  to  consider 
the  advisability  of  logging  it  with  a  view  to  relogging  it. 

Where  the  vakie  of  the  preceding  growth  is  at  its  best,  the  art 
of  the  second  growth  is  at  its  best  also. 

Where  the  cut  of  the  mature  stands  yields  hundreds  of  dollars 
per  acre,  the  owner  is  willmg  to  set  aside  from  ten  to  twenty 
dollars  per  acre,  investing  them  in  a  second  growth. 

Is  it  not  insane  to  expect  an  owner  to  convert  a  first  growth 
worth  but  tAventy  dollars  per  acre  into  a  second  growth  at  an 
expense   of   twenty   dollars  per   acre? 

The  outsider  urges  the  timberman  to  do  what  he  Avould  never  do 
himself:     To  exchange  a  steer  for  a  calf. 

II.  The  culled  forest  usually  exists  in  localities  where  timber 
has  a  higher  value  than  in  tlie  primeval  backwoods. 

Indeed,  where  the  culling  of  the  forest  has  made  great  progress 
in  a  state  or  in  a  county,  there  the  culled  forest  is  getting  rapidly 
ripe  for  sylvicultural  treatment. 

Heavy  culling  merely  proves  a  high  range  of  stumpage  prices, 
fostered  by  a  near-by  market  and  by  good  means  of  transportation. 

Where  the  forest  has  been  culled  only  of  decidedly  mature 
trees,  there  the  chances  for  good  results  are  bright,  financially  as 
well  as  sylviculturally. 

The  attitude  which  the  owner  of  culled  forests  adopts  towards 
sylvicultural  investments,  necessarily  depends  on  a  diagnosis  of  the 
future  of  the   lumber  industry  appealing   to  him. 

102 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

III.  The  cultured  forest  is  still  a  rarity  in  the  United  States, 
and  will  continue  to  be  a  rarity  during  our  lifetime. 

Imagine  for  a  moment,  that  the  famous  Black  forest  of  Ger- 
many were  suddenly  transferred,  with  its  fine  Spruce  woods,  its 
splendid  roads  and  its  skilled  laborers,  into  the  heart  of  the  Adi-  . 
rondacks!  Would  it  be  wise,  financially,  to  continue  its  sj'lvicul- 
tural  treatment  as  inaugurated  in  Germany? 

It  certainly  would;  the  logs  salable  in  the  Black  Forest  are 
also  salable  in  the  Adirondacks  at  a  good  profit.  And  a  network  of 
splendicl  roads  would  tend  to  cheapen  transportation  by  exactly 
that  many  cents  per  standard,  which  the  stvmipage  itself  would 
gain  per  standard. 

On  the  other  hand,  that  same  Black  Forest  transferred  to  the 
Pacific  coast — say  into  the  Olympic  mountains — -would  certainly 
prove  a  financial  and  therefore  a  sylvicultural  failure. 

The  better  it  pays  to  cull  the  forest,  the  closer  at  hand  is 
the   time  of  the  cultured  forest. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  the  change  from  the 
culled  to  the  cultured  forest  requires,  aside  from  a  market  for  the 
products  obtained  and  from  the  willingness  of  the  owner  to  embark 
in  sylvicultural   investments 

a.  Investments   in  permanent   means   of  transportation; 

b.  Relative  safety  from  forest  fires; 

c.  Time. 

Wherever  the  woods  emerge  in  a  decrepit  condition  from  the 
primeval  stage  after  reckless  lumbering,  heavy  fires,  unlimited 
pasturage,  theie  the  ado^jtion  of  a  system  will  be  found  necessary 
after  scores  of  years  breaking  entirely  with  the  past  and  raising, 
after  thorough  destruction  of  the  past  growth,  by  artificial  means 
a    new    crop   of    valuable    species. 

Large,  continuous  clearings  badly  resist  reforestation;  they  be- 
have, in  this  respect,  like  the  prairies,  although  on  a  smaller  scale. 
Extensive,  even-aged  woods  form  "  incubators "  for  disastrous  dis- 
eases; sufl"er  from  snow,  storm,  drought,  and  frost.  On  the  other 
hand,  their  management  is  greatly  facilitated,  so  that  reinforcing, 
cleaning,  thinning,  regeneration  and  utilization  are  much  cheapened. 

B.  Selection  of  form  by  the  forester. 

I.  The  primeval  forms  of  seed  forest  found  by  the  forester 
usually  appear  unretainable.  Whatever  the  case  be,  the  first  stroke 
of  the  axe  is  sure  to  remove  the  mature  and  hypermature  trees, 
the  preponderance  of  which  belongs  to  the  character  of  any  primeval 
form. 

163 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

However,  when  transforming  primeval  woods  into  cultured 
woods,  the  forester  should  endeavor  to  retain  as  much  as  possible 
the  form  originally  sanctioned  by  nature.  Such  retention  is  the 
safest  way  to  sylvicultural  success.  Still,  it  usually  necessitates 
heavy  investments  for  permanent  means  of  transportation,  and 
where  the  owner  is  vmwilling  to  make  them,  cuttings  by  com- 
partments or  by  strips  are  required,  which  in  turn  lead  to  th>i 
adoption  of  the  advance  growth  type,  shelterwood  type,  or  cleared 
type   of  n.  s.  r. 

The  strip  form,  as  mentioned  elsewhere,  seems  to  be  particu- 
larly well  adapted  to  meet  American  needs. 

II.  The  culled  forms  of  seed  forest  must  be  retained  by  the 
forester  in  the  compartment,  group  or  selection  form  first  en- 
countered, unless  the  culling  has  been  particularly  light.  Impro\e- 
ment  cuttings  are  not  apt  to  change  the  form  of  the  forest.  Where 
artificial  reinforcing  is  resorted  to,  the  forest  will  gradually  develop 
even-aged  forms.  When  after  heavy  culling  the  average  growing 
stock  per  acre  is  badly  reduced,  forms  allowing  of  short  rotations 
are  indicated,  so  especially  selection  forms  and  standard  forms. 
Frequently  in  such  eases,  the  high  forest  is  abandoned,  and  die 
sprout  forest  is  resorted  to. 

III.  In  the  cultured  forms,  the  trend  of  the  times  favors  uneven- 
aged  forms,  notably  mixed  group  forms  and  narrow  strip  form?,  on 
account  of  greater  safety. 

Heavy  "thinnings  from  above"  are  in  vogue,  frequently  in 
connection  with  underplanting  (or  underseeding  by  n.  s.  r.). 

Regeneration  is  effected  either  by  planting  compartments,  strips 
and  groups,  with  or  without  a  shelterwood  overhead,  or  ly  the 
various  types  of  n.  s.  r. 

Where  the  deficiency  of  the  growing  stock  leads  to  the  adoption 
of  short  rotations,  standard  forms,  two-storied  forms,  underplanted 
forms  or  coppice-under-standard  forms  must  be  resorted  to.  In  the 
latter  case,   of  course,   the   nigh   forest   form   is  thrown   overboard. 


Paragraph  LXVII.     Seed  forest  by  species. 

A.  Oaks:     The  Oaks  appear  in  pure  stands  but  rarely. 

I.  Primeval  woods..  The  primeval  seed  forest  exhibits  the  Oak: 
a.  As  the  loAver  story  planted  in  groups  or  compartments  under- 
neath  an  upper  story  of  Long-leaf   Pine,  Loblolly  Pine,   Short-leaf 
Pine; 

164 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

b.  In  small  pure  groups  sprinkled  amongst  the  Bald  Cypress 
and  Red  Gum  of  the  southern  hummocks; 

c.  In  the  selection  form  grafted  upon  compartments  of  higli 
forest  of  other  hardwoods,  notably  of  Chestnut,  Hickory,  Gum 
(Ten.) ;  or  grafted  on  compartments  of  Kalmia,  Rhododendron, 
Chinquapin   (N.  C). 

d.  In  pure  even-aged  groups  (prairie  borders). 

e.  In  selection  forests  mixed  with  many  other  hardwoods  also 
i:i  selection  form. 

II.  Culled  seed  forests:  The  culled  forest  of  oak  is  usually 
axe-culled  as  well  as  fire-culled,  thus  partly  losing  its  character 
as  a  high   forest. 

The  n.  s.  r.  of  White  Oak,  Chestnut  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  at 
Biltmore  proceeds  selectionwise  or  in  compartments,  notably  so  on 
Indian  fields  in  the  Pink-beds;  underneath  Cliestnut,  Maples,  and 
Oaks  on  Poplar  hill;  mixed  with  Hickory  on  the  lower  west  slope 
of  Averys  creek  and  so  on. 

The  Oaks  endure  shade  well  for  a  long  number  of  years,  tr.^il- 
ing  on  the  ground  until  freed  from  superstructure.  Coccinea  three 
years  old  is  only  five  inches  high,  being  clipped  back  continuously 
by  insufficient  lignification  of  its  top-shoots. 

Even-aged  polewoods  of  Oak  are  found  all  over  the  Blue  RiJgo 
and  the  Piedmont  Plateau.  Examination  will  usuallj^  prove  them 
to  be  fire-culled  coppice  formed  by  the  fire-killed,  younger  age 
classes  of  primeval  woods   (seedlings,  saplings  and  small  poles). 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests. 

The  cultured  high  forest  of  Oaks  in  America  is  still  in  statu 
nascendi.  The  growth  of  the  Oaks  during  early  youth  is  very  slow. 
The  soil  to  be  used  for  it  is  usually  so  badly  hardened  as  to  require 
artificial  help  to  n.  s.  r.  Oak  seedlings  and  saplings  are  rare  In 
Pisgah  Forest. 

The  Oaks  mingle  with  the  Short-leaf  Pine  everywhere  as  an 
undergrowth  started  by  n.  s.  r.,  or  as  a  companion-growth  in  Pine 
polewoods.  Here  too,  however,  the  fires  have  usuallj'  converted 
seedlings  and.  saplings  into  stump  sprouts. 

In  the  S.  E.,  regeneration  under  shelterwood  or  in  advance  of 
logging  (by  the  group  type  or  by  the  compartment  type)  seems 
advisable.  In  the  mixture  with  the  Oaks  should  be  encouraged: 
Maples,  Black  Gums,  Pines  (White  Pine  retains  its  branches  for  a 
long  time  in  the  mixture),  Chestnut,-  Hickory,  Walnut. 

Record  of  seed  years  at  Biltmore: 

White  Oak:   good  in  1899. 

165 


AMERICAN    SYLVICLLTURE 

Post  Oak:  in  1900  the  only  mast-bearing  oak. 

Black  Oak:    splendid,  full  mast  year  in   1901   in  all   situations. 

Scarlet  Oak:    splendid,  full  mast   year  in   1901. 

B.  Chestnuts: 

I.  Primeval  Forests: 

Actually  primeval  forests  of  Chestnut  seem  very  rare.  The 
Chestnut  woods  of  the  Appalachians  have  been  ransacked  by  fires 
for  many  decades  of  years.  The  n.  s.  r.  seems  to  have  been  of 
the  selection  type.  Chestnut  seems  to  avoid  limestone-soil  and 
ceases  to  occur  where  limestone  appears  (Ky;  Ten.). 

II.  Culled  seed  forests: 

The  fire-culled  forest  shows  an  absolute  lack  of  seedlings,  sap- 
lings and  poles. 

The  axe-culled  forest  consists  merely  of  coppice. 

Trees  beset  with  dead  branches  are  invariably  wormy 
(Lymexylon). 

Seed  years  seem  to  be  getting  scarce,  possibly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  fires,  to  judge  from  the  reports  of  mountaineers.  The  old 
trees  are  frequently  stagheaded  and  fail  to  successfully  regenerate 
their  kind. 

Seedlings  one  year  old  are  about  eight  inches  high,  when  found 
in  the  woods.  They  appear  individually  scattering  and  not  in 
groups. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

The  ciiltured  forest  usually  has  the  form  of  coppice  or  coppice- 
under-standards.  Plantations  in  the  United  States  are  made  more 
for  fruit-growing  than  for  timber-growing.  The  abandoned  fields 
at  Biltmore  seem  too  dry  for  successful  development.  Chestnuts 
planted  as  an  undergrowth  below  Oak  and  Pine  have  done  poorly, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of  squirrels. 

The  poles  and  trees  seem  to  badly  resent  any  sudden  inter- 
ference with  the  leaf  canopy  and  with  the  humus. 

Thinnings  and  cuttings  in  the  shelterwood  system  should  be 
light. 

The  competition  of  stoolshoots  invariably  formed  after  cuttings 
reduces  the  prospects  of  seedlings  simultaneously  obtained.  Stool- 
shoots  cannot  be  entirely  prevented  by  deadening  previous  to 
cutting. 

Chestnut  prodiices  a  splendid  humlis  and  is  an  excellent  com- 
panion for  Oaks,  Hickories,  Walnut,  Black  Cherrj%  Ash  and  Yellow 
Poplar;     also    for    White    Pine    and    Hemlock.    It    regenerates    in 

IGG 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

mixture   with   Yellow   Poplar   on   small   abandoned  fields   of   Pisgah 
Forest  to  a  limited  degree. 

On  the  mountain  tops,  where  Cliestnut  stands  in  an  orchard-like 
position,  seed  occurs  annually.    Full  mast  years  are  rare. 

C.  Hickories: 

I.  Primeval  forest:  The  Hickories  appear  regenerated  in  the 
selection  type  and  in  the  group  type. 

II.  Culled  seed  forest:  The  Hickories  suffer  badly  from  fires. 
Fires  do  not  kill  the  poles,  but  cause  the  butts  to  burst  subjecting 
them  to  decay.  Weeding  and  heavy  improvement  cuttings  ar-j 
beneficial. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forest: 

From  the  early  pole  stage  on,  the  crowns  should  be  placed  in 
a  free  position  so  as  to  cause  the  formation  of  wide  rings. 

At  Biltmore,  the  boles  are  apt  to  be  very  branchy,  the  tough 
limbs  being  very  persistent. 

In  the  mountains,  on  stronger  soil,  the  boles  clear  themselves 
readily. 

The  Hickories  regenerate  by  n.  s.  r.  in  abandoned  fields  in 
mixture  with  Black  C4um,  Sassafras,  Yellow  Poplar,  Locust,  Oaks, 
etc. 

In  the  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  Bitternut 
alone  promises  to  be  successful.  The  other  species  are  badly  handi- 
capped by  rodents  and  seem  to  be  of  very  slow  growth. 

The  Hickories  seem  to  be  immune  from  damage  by  frost  in 
their  native  country;   not  so  in  Germany. 

Full  seed  years  are  not  of  record. 

D.  AValnuts: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

The  walnuts  appear  in  the  primeval  woods  invariably  in  mix- 
ture with  other  species,  on  strong  soil,  seemingly  regenerated  by 
the  selection  type. 

II.  Culled  seed  forests: 

The  walnuts  seem  remarkably  fireproof  from  the  early  pole 
stage  on.  Seed  regeneration  is  rare  in  the  woods,  but  more  fre- 
quent on  old  deadenings  close  to  habitations,  where  the  squirrels 
were  held  in  check. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

Without  artificial  help,  n.  s.  r.  seems  very  problematic.     Under 
any  circumstances,  the  rodents  must  be  kept  off. 
167 


america:n   sylviculture 

Plantations  are  frequently  found  and  do  very  well  in  early 
youth,  unless  the  soil  is  badly  hardened  and  impoverished.  The 
stands  should  be  dense,  whether  pure  or  mixed  with  Oaks  etc., 
so  as  to  produce  clean  boles.  Plantations  seem  to  fail  in  the 
close  proximity  of  old  trees. 

The  plantations  at  Biltmore  have  failed  invariably  in  the 
woods,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  squirrels;  toungya  on  leased  farms 
shows  poor  success,  owing  to  the  unreliability  of  the  lessees; 
plantations  of  seedlings  three  years  old  failed  badly;  plantations 
of  yearlings  freeze  to  the  ground  annually  on  all  slopes;  plantations 
of  nuts  on  small  fields  have  done  very  well,  where  the  ground  was 
good;  and  the  change  from  good  to  bad,  brought  about  by  the 
undulations  of  the  soil,  is  very  marked.  Failures  on  poor  soil  are 
now  doctored  up  by  a  nursegrowth  of  Yellow  Pines, — a  remedy 
promising  some  success. 

E.  Beech: 

I.  The  primeval  forest  exhibits  tlie  compartment,  group  and 
selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.  The  humus  is  usually  very  heavy  and  so 
moist  that  fires  have  a  poor  chance  to  spread.  In  the  South,  at 
lower  altitudes,  Beech  merely  fringes  the  river  banks. 

II.  The  culled  seed  forest  shows  many  root  suckers  (Appala- 
chians) and  stump  sprouts,  stumps  three  feet  higli  forming  the 
sprouts  on  the  top  of  the  stump. 

In  the  Blue  Grass  Region,  huge  park  trees  are  frequently  found 
in  a  dense  undergrowth  of  seedlings  and  saplings.  Here  the  more 
valuable  species  have  been  culled  out  many  years  ago,  and  the  Beech 
is  left  in  exclusive  possession  of  the  soil. 

III.  The  cultured  seed  forests  of  Beech  are  easily  regenerated 
in  the  shelterwood-compartment  type.  The  selection  type  yields 
branchy  boles.  Beech  is  the  best  companion  imaginable  for  faster- 
growing  species;  is  splendidly  qualified  for  an  underwood  planted 
beneath  aristocratic  species;    is   exacting  and   sensitive. 

Plantations  on  abandoned  fields  are  out  of  the  question,  except 
at  high  altitudes. 

In  Michigan,  the  fall  of  1911  produced  a  full  mast  of  beechnuts. 

F.  Bass  wood; 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

In  the  Lake  States  and  in  the  -.-illeghanies,  Basswood  exhibits 
the  form  emanating  from  the  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  grafted 
on   the    compartment   type   of   White   Pine,   or   of   Hard   Maple,   or 

1G8 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

«lse    mixed    with    Hard    Maple,    Elm,    Oliestnut,    Red    Oak,    Yellow 
Poplar. 

II.  Culled  seed  forests: 

The  regeneration  follows  the  selection  type;  fires  clip  the  seed- 
imgs  and  saplings;   larger  poles  and  trees  seem  to  withstand  well. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

Young  seedlings  develop  very  slowly;  they  are  less  sensitive 
than  their  shade-endluance  would  indicate.  Pure  forests  are  found 
only  in  Russia. 

Seedlings  planted  at  Biltmore  on  old  fields,  of  strong  qualities, 
Jiave  hesitated  to  develop  for  six  years,  growing  bushy  and  crooked. 

Linden  underplanted  below  Oaks  and  Chestnuts  after  moderate 
thinning  on  North  slopes  seems  to  answer  admirably,  forming  long 
and  straiglit,  although  overhanging  topshoots. 

Seed  occurs  in  Pisgah  Forest  annually.  The  majority  of  the 
seeds,  however,  seem  to  drop  immature. 

G.  Yellow  Poplar: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

Yellow  Poplar  appears  invariably  in  the  selection  type,  or  iu 
the  form  of  standards. 

II.  Culled  seed  forests: 

The  species  attempts  unceasingly  to  propagate  its  kind  by 
n.  s.  r.  The  heavier  the  destruction  by  the  axe,  the  better  are  its 
chances  for  success.  Fires,  on  the  other  hand,  annihilate  the  seed- 
lings and  check  the  chances  for  regeneration  thereafter,  owing  to  a 
rank  growth  of  weeds  following  the  fires.  In  Pisgah  Forest,  seed- 
lings and  saplings  were  entirely  lacking,  imtil  fires  were  stopped. 

The  regeneration  on  old  fields,  on  the  other  hand,  is  prolific 
and  easy.  Cattle  press  the  seeds  into  the  ground  and  check  the 
competing  weeds.  Sassafras,  Locust  and  Pine  frequently  act  as 
ushers.  The  old  fields  are  usually  protected  from  fire  by  the 
owners  wishing  to  protect  their  fences. 

No  known  species  prunes  itself  so  readily  from  branches  as 
does  Yellow  Poplar,  the  dead  branches  popping  off  without  leaving 
any  stumps. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

No  species  at  Biltmore  is  as  easily  regenerated  by  n.  s.  r.  as  is 
Yellow  Poplar.  In  Biltmore  Forest,  the  group  type  is  readily 
carried  through  with  the  help  of  three  or  four  mother-trees  to 
the    acre.      The    companions    of    the    mother    trees,    notably    Oaks 

169 


A  :\I  E  R  I  C  AX    S  Y  L  \  I  C  U  L  T  U  E  E 

and  Cliestnuts,  are  gradually  cut  away;  spreading  Dogwoods  are 
deadened  to  preA^ent  them  from  forming  stoolshoots. 

In  Pisgah  Forest,  regeneration  is  helped  by  preceding  pasturage 
(especially  in  early  spring,  before  the  seeds  of  Poplar  germinate), 
and  by  weeding  following  in  the  wake  of  n.  s.  r. 

The  seeds  will  never  sprout  in  the  humus;  seedlings  born  late 
in  spring  (June)  and  showing  the  cotyledons  still  in  September  are 
sure  to  be  killed  by  frost;  also  seedlings  growing  in  the  shade  of 
weeds.  The  logging  roads  and  log  yards  are  real  "  nurseries  "  for 
Poplar.     On  steep  ground,  the  seedlings  are  washed  out  by  the  rain. 

The  growth  is  very  fast. 

Seed  years  are  annual:  hollow  trees  are  likely  to  furnish  poor 
seeds. 

Plantations  of  three-year-olds  at  Biltmore  on  poor  old  fields  did 
badly;  on  good  soil,  especially  where  a  volunteer  growth  of  Locust 
has  joined  the  plants,  the  success  is  complete.  Plantations  of 
Yellow  Poplar  alternating  with  White  Pine  promise  well. 

H.  Maples: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

Here  tlie  regeneration  follows  tlie  compartment  type  (Adiron- 
dacks,  Missouri  valley),  the  group  type  and  the  selection  type 
(Michigan,  Northern  Minnesota).  Maple  usually  appears  in  mixture 
with  other  hardwoods,  also  with  Spruce  and  White  Pine.  Soft 
Maple  occurs  in  low,  moist  sites  as  well  as  on  dry  ridges.  Hard 
Maple  demands  well-drained  and  strong  soil,  preferring  Northern 
aspects. 

H.  Culled  seed  forests: 

After  culling,  the  younger  stages  of  Maple  are  usually  left 
in  possession  and  develop  in  dense  thickets,  preventing  more  valu- 
able species  (White  Pines)  from  establishing  themselves.  In  the 
Adirondacks,  Soft  Maple  is  frequently  found  on  Spruce  flats  after 
windfalls    (associated  with   Yellow  Birch). 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

Dr.  Fernow  at  Axton  succeeded  in  establishing,  in  places,  a 
splendid  regeneration  obtained  from  advance  growth  n.  s.  r.  of  the 
compartment  type,  removing  the  parents  at  one  stroke.  In  Europe, 
the    shelterwood    compartment    type   answers    admirably. 

Biltmore  Forest  is  deficient  in  Maple.  Still,  Hard  IMaple 
planted  on  abandoned  fields,  pure  or  in  mixture  with  White  Pine, 
has  done  almirably,  except  on  dry'S.  W.  slopes,  dry  spurs,  and  very 
moist  river  bottoms. 

170 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

In  Pisgah  Forest,  Red  Maple  usually  appears  as  a  weed  over- 
shadowing aristocratic  seedlings. 

The  best  Maple  forests  of  the  world  are  those  of  the  lower 
peninsula  of  Michigan.  Here,  old  deadenings  abandoned  some  forty 
j-ears  ago,  and  old  windfalls  at  the  edge  of  clearings  show  a  natural 
second  growth  so  luxurious,  straight,  dense  and  perfect  that  little 
remains  for  the  forester  to  improve. 

Where  a  light  ground-fire  has  destroyed  a  superabundance  of 
leafniold  carpeting  the  ground,  the  regeneration  of  Sugar  Maple- 
is  prolific  after  seed-years  such  as  autumn  1909  in  Michigan. 

I.  Ashes: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  Ashes  usually  regenerate  and  stand 
in  patches  or  groups,  occupying  the  moister  sites. 

II.  Culled  seed  forests: 

Protected  by  moist  ground,  the  Ashes  stand  a  good  chance  to 
escape  the  fires.  During  early  youth,  the  seedlings  endure  remark- 
ably heavy  shade.  Weeding  and  improvement  cuttings  produce 
splendid  results. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

Regeneration  in  the  group  type  is  easy,  if  helped  by  cleaning 
(Ducker  Mountain  of  Biltmore  Estate)  and  gradual  removal  of  the 
obstructing  trees.  On  old  fields,  on  moist  slopes.  White  Ash  is 
often  accompanied  by  Yellow  Poplar  and  Halesia. 

Plantations  of  three-year-old  Green  Ash  have  failed  utterly  at 
Biltmore  on  dry,  hard  soil. 

Plantations  of  three-year-old  White  Ash  along  the  creeks  do 
very  well;  also  seed  plantations  on  good  soil  in  the  gaps  of  a  ridge. 

The  early  growth  is  very  fast. 

Seeds    are   profusely   produced   from    the   pole   stage   on. 

J.  Red   Spruce: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  primeval  Spruce  woods  appear  as^ 
more  or  less  even-aged  compartments  in  the  swamps  and  sloughs 
of  the  Lake  States  and  on  the  dry,  shallow  South  slopes  of  New 
England;  in  the  cleared  group  form  and  in  the  selection  form  in 
Western  N.  C.  at  altitudes  exceeding  5,000  feet,  mixed  with  Abies 
fraseri  (selection) ;  in  the  selection  form,  grafted  upon  compart- 
ments of  Beech  and  Maple,  on  the  hardwood  slopes  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks.  In  the  latter  case.  Spruce  never  regenerates  in  the  heavy 
layer  of  broad-leafed  humus,  but  selects  invariably  the  half-rotted 
corpse  of  a  dead  tree  (Hemlock)   for  a  seed-bed. 

171 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

II.  Culled  seed  forests:  In  slightly  culled  forests  immune  from 
:fires,  Red  Spruce  seems  to  reproduce  with  remarkable  ease.  On 
fired  ground,  Birches  and  Cottonwoods  frequently  act  as  ushers. 
Its  persistence  below  an  impenetrable  leaf  canopy  of  Beech  or  Maple 
is  surprising.  Freed  from  superstructure,  after  long  years  of  suf- 
fering, it  answers  the  chance  for  rapid  growth  almost  immediately, 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests:  Spruce  requires  high  atmospheric 
anoisture;  is  satisfied  Avith  shallow  soil;  can  be  readily  reproduced 
by  n.  s.  r.  as  well  as  by  planting. 

Seed  years:  Prolific  in  North  Carolina  in  fall  1901.  The  trees, 
top  heavy  with  cones,  were  mowed  down  by  storms. 

K.  White  Pine: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  White  Pine  of  the  primeval  woods 
appears  in  compartments,  almost  even-aged,  or  in  groups,  either 
j)me,  or  with  an  admixture  of  hard  Maple,  Linden,  Elm,  Yellow 
Birch;  or  in  the  form  of  standards  over  Red  Spruce  and  Balsam; 
or  in  the  selection  form,  as  in  the  Calmia  thickets  of  Pisgah  Forest. 
It  is  flat-rooted,  subject  to  windfalls,  in  the  North  not  tolerant 
of  shade. 

II.  Culled  seed  forest:  The  gorgeous  White  Pine  forests  of 
the  Lake  States,  after  culling  followed  by  fires,  are  invariably 
surendered  to  a  shrubbage  of  hardwoods.  Second  growth  is  found 
in  beautiful  groups  underneath  Norway  Pine;  individually  sprinkled 
amongst  Jack  Pine,  Basswood,  Birch,  etc.;  also  on  old  burns  in 
extensiA'e,  even-aged  compartments;  along  roads  and  at  the  edge  of 
clearings;   in  New  England  on  old  fields. 

In  Western  N.  C,  White  Pine  regenerates  readily  on  broom- 
sedge  fields;  in  mixture  with  the  Oaks  on  the  uplands;  in  mixture 
with  Red  Maple  and  Red  Birch  in  the  river  swamps,  etc. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests:  At  Biltmore,  the  n.  s.  r.  of  White 
Pine  started  by  a  few  seed  trees  succeeds  easily  in  the  group  type. 
White  Pines  planted  under  dense  shelter  soon  require  the  help  of 
the  axe.  Individual  trees  are  very  retentive  of  branches.  Planta- 
tions on  several  hundred  acres  have  done  admirably.  White  Pine 
is  the  easiest  Pine  to  plant  on  old  fields,  or  in  groups  of  the  woods 
after  clearing. 

Seed  years  are  frequent  at  Biltmore,  recurring  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  years. 


172 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

li.  Yellow  Pines: 

X.  Primeval  forests:  The  pure  group  form  (Black  Hills)  or 
the  group  form  wedded  with  the  compartment  form  of  Oaks  reach- 
ing a  lesser  height  than  the  Pines  seem  to  be  typical.  Pine 
standards  are  often  left.  Pinus  taeda,  divaricata,  and  murrayana. 
occur  in  even-aged  compartments;  P.  palustris  and  P.  heterophylla 
usually  occur  in  groups. 

II.  Culled  seed  forests: 

The  culled  forest  is  usually  visited  by  fires  which  gradually 
convert  an  undergrowth  of  hardwoods,  where  it  exists,  into  coppice.. 
Beneath  Longleaf  Pine,  this  undergrowth  begins  to  sprout  only  at 
a  time  when  the  mature  Pine  is  removed. 

Where  the  pure  high  forest  continues,  fire  has  usually  improved 
the  chances  for  n.  s.  r.  by  preparing  a  ready  seed-bed  and  by  lessen- 
ing the  severity  of  future  fires. 

All  Yellow  Pines  regenerate  prolifically  on  abandoned  fields,, 
often  in  stands  which  artificial  planting  could  not  produce  equally 
well. 

III.  Cultured  seed  forests: 

The  n.  s.  r.  of  P.  eehinata  in  the  Biltmore  woods  creates  nucleL 
for  small  groups  which  are  freed  and  gradually  enlarged.  Heavy 
thinnings,  fi'om  the  early  thicket  stage  on,  prevent  crowding  in  the 
pole  stage  and  thereby  check  the  chances  for  successful  attacks  by 
the  bark  beetles.  Pruning  (dead  branches  only)  100  decidedly  pre- 
destined trees  per  acre  seems  remunerative  at  Biltmore. 

Standard  form  of  P.  eehinata  seems  indicated  at  Biltmore. 

All  Yellow  Pines  are  easily  planted  when  one  or  two  years  old 
and  get  along  without  cultivation  in  the  absence  of  annual  weeds. 
Heavy  growth  of  weeds,  on  good  soil,  however,  is  sure  to  smother 
them. 

In  pure  and  large  natural  regenerations,  it  is  wise  to  leave 
some  hardwood  standards  with  a  view  to  securing  an  admixture- 
of  hardwood  seedlings  in  due  course  of  time. 

In  mixture  with  White  Pine,  Yellow  Pine  is  soon  subdued  on 
good  soil,  while  it  retains  the  lead  on  poor  soil. 

Seed  years  of  Pinus  eehinata  occur  at  Biltmore  every  seven 
years.  The  fall  of  1902  was  a  prolific  breeder  of  seeds  even  in  pole^ 
woods  thirtv-five  vears  old. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  SPROUT  FOREST 

Paragraph  LXVIII.     Genesis  of  the  sprout  for- 
est and  its  types. 

The  sprout  forest  is  either  the  result  of  stump-shoots  or  is 
obtained  from  rootsuckers,  layers  and  cuttings. 

A.  Stumpsprouts  (or  stoolshoots  or  coppice   shoots). 

I.  Species:  All  hardwoods  whilst  young  form  stump  shoots 
when  cut  just  above  the  callus.  Amongst  the  softwoods,  the 
Sequoias  exhibit  enormous  stump  sprouts.  Amongst  the  Yellow 
Pines,  P.  rigida  and  echinata,  also  P.  taeda,  are  capable  of  develop- 

,ing  sprouts  from  stumjis  measuring  less  than  six  inches  in  diameter. 
"White  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  Larches,  Hemlocks,  etc.,  never  form 
stump  sprouts. 

II.  Diameter:  The  sprouting  capacity  rapidly  decreases, 
usually,  witli  increasing  diameter  of  the  stump.  The  diameter  at 
which  the  principal  height  growth  is  completed  usually  denotes  the 
limit  permissible  for  coppice  rotations.  This  rule  is  particularly 
well  illustrated  by  the  behavior  of  Yellow  Pine,  Birch,  Maple, 
YelloAV  Poplar,  Oaks,  Hickories,  etc.  Chestnut  and  Sequoia  do  not 
seem  to  follow  the  rule. 

III.  Soil:  Good  soil  allows  big  stumps  otherwise  unproductive 
of  sprouts  to  form  stool  shoots. 

Good  soil  produces  stronger,  bivt  less  sprouts  than  poor  soil. 

iV.  Life  of  stumps:  The  life  and  hence  the  sprouting  capacity 
of  stumps  repeatedly  coppiced  is  closely  connected  wdth  the  resist- 
ance offered  by  the  timber  to  decay.  White  Oak,  Chestnut,  Se- 
-quoia  and  Locust  are  perseverant  sprouters,  the  scars  on  the  stump 
being  protected  from  rotting  by  the  antiseptic  qualities  of  the  sub- 
stances incrustating  the  heart  wood. 

The  reproductive  power  of  Birch,  Beech,  and  Maple  is  not  sus- 
tained for  a  long  time.  Ash  and  Basswood  show  greater 
perseverance. 

It  might  be  said  that  a  long-livod  species  is  also  a  perseverant 
:sprouter. 

The  sprouting  capacity  is  especially  good  in  species  capable  of 
174 


THE   ART    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

forming  a  separate  and  detaclied  root  system  for  the  sprout  inde- 
pendent from  the  mother  stump.  This  is  the  case  in  species  forming 
sprouts  from  the  base  of  the  .stump  (at  the  root  collar). 

V.  Optimum  number  of  stumps  per  acre: 

The  optimum  depends  on  ihe  length  of  the  rotation.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be:  For  German  Oak  coppice,  rotation  twenty  years, 
2,000  stumps  per  acre;  for  Osier  culture,  rotation  one  or  two  years, 
80,000  stumps  per  acre. 

VI.  Manner  of  Coppicing:  The  use  of  the  axe  is  preferable  to 
that  of  the  saw.  Stumps  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  to  begin  with. 
In  case  of  stumps — notably  Beech  and  Birch — coppiced  a  number  of 
times  it  is  better  to  cut  in  the  new  wood.  The  scar  should  allow  the 
water  to  run  off,  instead  of  collecting  it  like  a  saucer.  The  expense 
of  the  genesis  of  the  coppice  forest  is  practically  nil. 

VII.  Season  of  coppicing: 

If  the  wood  must  be  peeled,  the  cut  should  be  made  in  early 
spring.  Late  spring  cutting  subjects  the  new  sprouts  to  early 
frosts.  Coppicing  in  August  is  supposed — for  similar  reasons — to 
aft'ect  the  vitality  of  the  stumps.  Where  the  slioots  are  not  to  be 
peeled,  cutting  in  late  winter  is  best.  Winter  cutting  prevents  the 
stumps  from  bleeding  and  allows  to  remove  the  product  cut  before 
the  appearance  of  new  shoots  without  injuring  the  stumps. 

Cutting  in  fall  subjects  the  stumps  to  frost-cracks  and  to  bark- 
blistering;  it  causes  the  new  fleshy  shoots  to  appear  early  in  spring, 
at  the  season  of  prevailing  late  frosts. 

Accessibility  of  the  locality  at  the  proposed  season  of  cutting 
and  availability  of  local  labor  further  determine  the  season  of 
cutting. 

VIII.  Reinforcing:  Where  the  number  of  stumps  is  or  becomes 
deficient,  there  the  owner  may  plant  seedlings  or  stump-plants  to 
replenish  the  growing  stock. 

B.  Root  suckers:  Cottonwood,  Willow,  Locust,  Alder,  some 
Elms  and  Maples,  after  European  experience  Liriodendron,  also 
Beech  in  the  Southern  Appalachians,  form  root  suckers,  especially 
on  porous  soil.  The  suckers  are  increased  by  locally  uncovering  the 
porous  soil.  They  might  be  severed  from  the  stump  and  planted 
when  two  or  three  years  old;  but  this  is  expensive.  Gardeners 
often  use  pieces  of  roots,  say  ten  inches  long  and  finger-thick,  for 
propagating  broad-leafed  species  in  good  soil.  An  observer  in  F. 
and  J.,  May,  1904,  claims  to  have  found  that  Fir  and  Spruce 
in  tlie  Presidential  Range  of  the  White  Mountains  propagate  their 
175 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

kind  by  the  natural  and  unaided  formation  of   suckers  developing 
from  long  horizontal  roots. 

C.  Iiayers:  A  low,  long  branch  of  a  standing  tree  is  partly 
buried  in  a  trench  one-half  foot  deep,  held  in  place  by  hooks,  pins  or 
stones,  the  end  of  the  branch  protruding  above  ground.  The  branch 
thus  embedded  forms  roots  and  shoots.  The  latter  are  severed 
from  each  other  a  year  or  two  before  planting  in  the  open. 

Layering  is  a  gardener's  method  only  locally  used  in  parks.  At 
high  altitudes,  under  the  influence  of  very  great  atmospheric 
moisture,  the  low  Spruce  branches  form  roots  and  shoots  in  a  simi- 
lar manner. 

D.  Cuttings:  WilloAvs  and  Poplars  are  usually  propagated  by 
"  cuttings,"  viz.  by  pieces  of  branches  one  foot  long  and  two  years 
old,  tipped  with  a  piece  one  y6ar  old.  The  cuttings  are  inserted 
obliquely,  the  tips  barely  showing  above  the  ground.  Planting  dag- 
ger or  turning  plow  are  the  tools  used.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  bark  from  peeling  off.  It  is  claimed  that  the  constant 
use  of  cuttings  causes  a  deterioration  of  growth.  Cuttings  of 
sapling  size  taken  from  strong  and  long  branches  are  also  planted 
in  good  nursery  soil  for  a  number  of  years  and  planted  in  the 
open  ground  after  catching  root.  Willows  and  Poplars  allow  of 
heavy  trimming.  Among  conifers,  only  Sequoia  permits  the  use  of 
cuttings.  It  is  claimed  that  Sequoia-chips  sprout  successfully  in 
the  moist  climate  of  the  Coast  Range. 

Paragraph  LXIX.       Peda^o^ie     of     the     sprout 
forests. 

The  sprout  forest  is  tended  by  cleaning,  weeding,  and  thinning; 
also  by  improvement  cuttings  and  pruning. 

A.  Cleanings:  To  prevent  undesirable  shoots  from  develop- 
ing, the  stumps  producing  them  must  be  removed.  Stumps  of  un- 
desirable species  (Blackgum,  Hazel,  Alder)  can  be  removed  only  by 
digging,  or  by  heaping  dirt  upon  them,  or  by  firing  heaps  of  debris 
placed  on  the  stumps.  Usually,  it  is  preferable  to  deaden  undesira- 
ble trees  instead  of  trying  to  prevent  their  stumps  from  forming 
sprouts.  In  some  species,  stumps  three  feet  high  will  form  poor 
sprouts,  a  quality  which  might  be  taken  advantage  of. 

B.  Weedings:  Misshapen  trees  or  poles  of  a  desirable  hard- 
wood species,  cut  level  with  the  ground,  will  at  once  produce  shoots 
of  good  quality.    Poles  badly  damaged  by  fires  should  be  cut  for  an 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

increase  in  vitalitj'.  Trees  left  becavise  worthless  should  be  dead- 
ened, unless  they  belong  to  the  aristocracy,  or  unless  they  improve 
the  goM  sprouts  as  well  as  the  soil  in  the  role  of  subordinate 
companions. 

C.  Tmnnings :  Thinnings  are  rare  in  European  coppice  woods; 
in  tanbark  coppice  they  usually  purport  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  bark.  Where  made,  the  thinnings  usuallj^  remove  the  weaker 
shoots  of  a  stump  for  the  benefit  of  the  better  and  stronger  shoots.. 
The  rotations  of  European  coppice  being  short,  heavy  thinnings 
tend  to  deteriorate  the  quality  (branchiness  and  shape)  of  the 
shoots  as  well  as  of  the  soil;  and  light  thinnings  are  rarely 
remunerative. 

In  America,  coppice  of  Catalpa,  of  Cliestnut,  of  Locust  and 
Hickory  may  invite  heavy  thinnings  where  fence  posts,  telephone 
posts,  railroad   ties,  wagonstock,  etc.,  find  a  ready  market. 

In  case  of  Hickory,  thinnings  periodically  removing  the  best 
trees    (a   la  Borggreve)    might  seem   indicated. 

D.  Improvement  cuttings:  Improvement  cuttings  are  neces- 
sary in  culled  sprout  forest  emerging  directly  from  primeval  hard- 
wood forest  heavily  cut  or  heavily  fired.  Such  forest  is  invariably 
encumbered  with  bushy  and  worthless  standards  (if  the  standards 
have  a  value,  the  forest  belongs  to  the  form  of  coppice  under  stand- 
ards described  in  Par.  LXXIII-Par.  LXXVIII)  interfering  with  the 
development  of  the  shoots;  or  with  undesirable  species  left  by  the 
logger.     The   mob   frequently  prevails  over   the   aristocrats. 

The  first  final  cut  at  the  end  of  the  first  coppice  rotation  usu- 
ally answers  the  purpose  of  an  improvement  cutting. 

£.  Pruning:  Pruning  is  required  to  prevent  coppice  of 
Catalpa,  Locust  and  Ash  from  forming  forks  or  heavy  brandies. 
Naturally,  pruning  is  expensive  and  dangerous  at  the  same  time 
since  live  branches  are  removed.  The  danger  is  particularly  great 
where  the  rotations  are  long,  the  pruned  stump  shoots  being  left 
for  decades  of  years  after  pruning. 

In  the  pollarding  form,  pi'uning  or  rather  lopping  obviously 
comprises  tiie  harvest  of  the  crop. 

Paragraph  LXX.     Key   to   the   forms   of   sprout 
forests. 

Altliough  coppicing  is  called  a  type  of  natural  regeneration,   it 
is  an  unnatural  measure  rarely  adopted  by  primeval  nature  in  the 
177 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE       - 

propagation  of  the  woods.  Primeval  forms  of  coppice  forest  proper 
do  not  exist. 

Species  propagating  their  kind,  at  least  partially,  by  root- 
suckers  frequently  form  rootsucker  forests  closely  resembling  cop- 
pice forests  propel-  # 

Chestnuts,  Locusts  and  many  other  hardwoods  broken  down  by 
storm  may  form  natural  sprouts  from  the  stumps.  Still,  these 
cases  are  probably  so  scattering  as  not  to  deserve  the  name  of 
"  forms   of  primeval   sprout  forest." 

Thus  there  remain  two  large  groups  of  sprout  forests,  namely 
"  Culled  Sprout  Forests  "  and  "  Cultured  Sprout  Forests."  In  both 
cases  we  have  to  deal  but  witli  the  large -area  form  or  compart- 
ment form  of  coppice. 

Woods  seemingly  consisting  of  uneven-aged  coppice  shoots, 
mixed  in  groups  or  individually,  are  treated  as  "forms  of  coppice- 
under-standards "  (Par.  LXXIII  to  Par.  LXXVIII),  unless  the 
standards  are  worthless  and  promise  to  remain  w'orthless. 

A.  Culled  forms   of  coppice: 

These  forms  emerge  eitlier  directly  from  omnivendible  primeval 
forms,  or  else  have  passed  through  the  intermediate  stage  of 
"  culled  coppice  under  standards." 

I.  Characteristic  for  culled  coppice  is: 
An  even   display  of  growth. 

A  surprising  density  of  stand. 

The  presence  of  some  weathered  and  worthless  snags  and 
stumps  protruding  from  the  even  sea  of  coppice. 

II.  Subdivision  of  culled  coppice: 

Uniformity  being  characteristic  for  culled  coppice,  sub-forms  can 
scarcely  be  singled  out,  unless  the  means  of  coppicing — fire  or  axe^ 
serve  as  a  criterion.     Hence  there  might  be  distinguished 

a.  The  form  of  fire-cullad  coppice,  and 

b.  The  form  of  axe-culled  coppice. 

This  distinction  is  not  made  on  the  basis  of  different  display; 
but  on  the  basis  of  difference  in  treatment  required  by  the  two 
forms. 

III.  Treatment  of  culled  coppice: 

The  culled  coppice  is  regenerated  by  being  coppiced  anew.  In 
the  case  of  fire-culled  coppice,  it  is  Avise  to  delay  the  second  cut 
as  little  as  possible. 

Coppicing  in  patches  or  small  groups  is  not  advisable,  the  young 
shoots  requiring  all  the  light  available  for  rapid  lignification. 

An  insufficient  number  of  stumps  may  call  for  artificial 
reinforcing.  17g 


A  lil  E  R  I  C  A  N'    SYLVICULTURE 

Improvement  cuttings  convert  poor  coppice  shoots  interfering 
with  their  neighbors  from  above  into  healthy  coppice  shoots  press- 
ing their  neighbors  helpfully  from  below. 

B.  Cultured  forms  of  sprout  forests: 

Xo  form  of  cultured  forest  can  be  obtained  more  easily  and 
more  cheaply  than  the  form  of  cultured  coppice. 

In  the  European  hardwood  forests,  the  cultured  coppice  of  the 
past  has  often  served  as  the  forerunner  of  the  cultured  seed  forest 
of  the  present  sylvan  era. 

I.  Characteristic  for  cultured  coppice  is  an  even  stand,  a  dense 
stand,  absence   of  undesirable  competitors  and  of  tree  weeds. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  coppice  forms  are: 

a.  The  simple  form  of  cultured  coppice,  where  all  shoots  have 
the   same   age. 

b.  The  two-storied  form  of  cultured  coppice,  where  the  growing 
stock  displays  two  tiers  of  leaf  canopy,  viz.,  an  upper  and  a  lower 
tier,  the  age  of  the  tiers  difl'ering  by  half  the  length  of  a  rotation. 

In  addition,  a  form  of  "  high  stumps  "  is  usually  distinguished, 
where  trees  are  cut  some  six  to  ten  feet  above  ground  and  where 
the  shoots  forming  on  such  stumps  are  cut  at  short  intervals. 
This  form,  adajjted  particularly  for  the  production  of  fascines,  is 
known  as: 

c.  The  pollarding  form  of  cultured  coppice. 

In  this  form,  rotations  of  one  to  five  years  are  usually  adopted, 
and  the  "  lopping "  takes  place  in  the  "  new  wood."  The  types 
of  this  form  are  found,  in  the  case  of  Willows,  near  the  levees; 
and  in  the  case  of  Mulberry,  in  the  silk-producing  districts  of  the 
world. 

III.  Treatment    of  cultured   coppice  forms: 

Regeneration  in  the  cultured  forms  of  coppice  is,  of  course,  by 
coppicing,  helped  by  planting  stump-plants,  cuttings  and  suckers, 
or  by  layering.  Regeneration  may  proceed  against  the  direction  of 
the  wind  which  brings  the  heavy  frosts  of  spring  and  fall  (blizzard- 
direction).     Cleanings   and   thinnings  are   often   indicated. 


Paragraph  LXXI.      Critical   remarks    on   sprout 
forests. 

The    sprout   forest   furnishes    small-sized   timber,    notably    fire- 
wood and  farm  supplies,  but  no  or  little  saw  timber.    Its  production 
179 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

is  not  so  many-sided  as  that  of  the  high  forest,  and  for  that  reason 
not  so  sure  to  find  a  ready  market. 

On  the  other  hand,  allowing  of  shorter  rotations,  the  timber 
investment  is  much  smaller  than  in  the  seed  forest,  and  the  returns 
from   "  final   yields "  are   more   frequent. 

A  comparatively  small  area  may  produce,  under  a  coppice  form, 
a   regular   sustained  yield. 

The  soil  of  the  forest  is  frequently  exposed,  and  shows  a  thin 
layer  of  humus.  Shallow  soil  is,  however,  sufficient  for  the  welfare 
of  a  sprout  forest. 

The   water-retaining   capacity   of   the   sprout   forest   is   small. 

The  sprout  forest  is  less  exposed  to  storm,  fire,  snow  and 
insects  (being  broad-leafed  usually),  and  more  exposed  to  late  and 
early  frosts  than  the  seed  forest.  As  a  stock  pasture,  it  is  more 
productive  than  the  seed  forest;  but  also  more  damaged  by 
pasture. 

The  expense  of  regeneration  and  of  pedagogie  is  slight.  The 
species  forming  shoots  from  below  tlie  ground  and  those  forming 
root-suckers  allow  of  long  rotations  usually. 


Paragraph  LXXII.     Sprout   forests  by  species. 

A.  Oaks: 

I.  Culled  Oak  coppice: 

Culled  Oak  coppice  is  usually  fire-culled.  The  stumps  do  not 
relax  and  do  not  refuse  to  produce  new  shoots  after  continuous 
firing.  Still,  the  shoots  become  weak,  stunted  and  bushy-crowned, 
and  soon  refuse  to  grow  in  diameter  as   well  as  in  height. 

It  is  remarkable  to  find  that  these  worthless  shoots  may  be 
replaced  by  strong  sprouts  after  coppicing  with  the  axe. 

The  poorer  the  fire-culled  Oak  coppice,  the  greater  is  the  im- 
provement obtainable  by  axe-coppicing. 

II.  Cultured  Oak  Coppice: 

In  Europe,  Oak  coppice  h  the  form  in  which  Oak  bark  is  raised 
for  tanning  purposes,  under  a  rotation  of  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
years. 

In  America,  coppiced  Oak  is  used  only  for  charcoal  and  fire- 
wood,— rarely  for  railroad  ties.  Rotations  yielding  ties  will  not 
allow  of  a  ready  reproduction  under  the  coppice  form,  unless  the 
soil  is  verj'  strong. 

At  Biltmore,  Post  Oak  three  inches  through.  White  Oak  ten 
180 


THE   ART    OF    THE    SECOND    GROWTH 

inches  through,  Black  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  twelve  inches  through 
are  unlikely  to  sprout. 

A  rotation  of  not  to  exceed  forty  years  seems  indicated.  Such 
a  rotation  might  also  yield  hoop  poles,  poles  for  splitwood  fabrics 
and   minor   wagonstock. 

B.  Beech: 

Beecji  coppice  yields  firewood,  charcoal  and  so-called  retort- 
wood    for   dry    distillation. 

The  sprouting  capacity  of  the  Beech  invites  short  rotations. 
Strong  soil  is  required. 

C.  Hickory: 

Hickory  coppice  promises  good  financial  results  on  strong  soil 
only.  Fires  must  be  strictly  kept  in  check,  owing  to  the  heavy 
scars  which  they  inflict  on  Hickory.  Rotations  of  about  twenty 
years,    low    stumps   and   winter   cutting   seem   required. 

On  Biltmore  soil,  stumps  over  six  inches  in  diameter  usually 
refuse   to   sprout. 

D.  Liocnst: 

Locust  coppice  densely  planted  on  old  fields  seems  to  be  a  good 
investment,  although  the  poles  thus  produced  consist  of  sappy  wood 
undesirable  for  fence  posts.  The  j^oung  shoots  suft'er  from  a 
pithboring  moth    (Ecdytolopha  species). 

The  sprouting  capacity  is  very  good,  helped  by  the  ready 
formation  of  rootsuckers. 

In  Germany,  wagon  stock  is  obtained  in  rotations  of  twenty 
years. 

E.  Chestnut: 

Chestnut  is  the  American  species  best  adapted  for  the  coppice 
forest.  Stumps  of  ainy  diameter  emit  sprouts.  A  rotation  of 
twenty  to  forty  years  will  yield  vineyard  stakes,  hop  poles,  tele- 
phone poles,  posts,  rails,  ties  and  wood  for  the  extraction  of 
tannic  acid;  a  rotation  of  five  years  is  said  to  be  used  for  the 
production  of  hoop  poles  for  barrel  hoops. 

The  European  complaint  does  not  seem  warranted  in  America 
to  the  effect  that  rotations  exceeding  twenty  years  invite  a  disease 
known  as  "  heart-rot." 

In  Alsace-Lorraine,  thinnings  take  place  in  the  tenth  year; 
the  cut  is  made  in  early  winter,  and  the  stumps  are  sometimes 
protected  from  the  influence  of  frost  by  heaps  of  brush.  In  the 
Appalachians,  such  precautions  are  not  called  for.  It  is  unneces- 
sarj',  if  not  unwise,  to  rediice  the  number  of  sprouts  starting  from 

181 


A  jM  E  R  I  C  A  X    S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E 

one    stump     artificially.       Sjiiing    cutting    and    high     stumps     are 
objectionable. 

On  dry  and  impoverished  soil,  or  under  the  regime  of  fires, 
Chestnut  coppice  is  hopelessly  lost. 

F.  Cottoii\irood: 

The  sprout  forest  of  Cottonwood  produces  match  stock  and 
pulpwood.  The  stumps  have  little  vitality  and  will  not  endure 
more  than  four  rotations  of  twenty  years  each.  Very  low  stumps 
are  required  to  insure  healthy  sprouts  and  to  encourage  the  pro- 
duction of  rootsuckers.     The  growth  is  very  fast  in  the  first  years. 

G.  AVillows   (Osier-culture): 

Osier  culture  is  considered  a  money  maker  in  Germany  where 
labor  is  cheap.  It  is  now  in  vogue  in  New  York  and  in  New 
Jersey.  The  best  species  are  Salix  viminalis,  Salix  amygdalina, 
Salix  purpurea,  Salix  acutifolia  (caspica).  The  rotation  comprises 
one  or  two  years.  With  the  exception  of  Salix  caspica,  a  moist 
soil  is  required   (meadow  land  in  river  bottoms)   by  the  willows. 

The  stumps  do  not  yield  a  return  for  more  than  twelve  to  six- 
teen years. 

For  tlie  formation  of  an  Osier  grove,  shoots  two  feet  long  are 
used,  of  wliich  about  80,000  are  put  in  per  acre.  It  is  stated  that 
the  more  shoots  there  are  per  acre,  the  better  is  the  quality  of  the 
Willow,  as  branchy  stuff"  cannot  be  used  for  basket  making. 

Cultivation  between  the  rows  is  said  to  be  very  advisable  or 
even  necessary,  especially  in  the  first  year.  There  are  many 
insects  feeding  on  the  leaves  and  many  fungi  besetting  the  leaves 
of  the  Willows. 

A  one-year  rotation  is  best.  After  three  or  foirr  years,  how- 
ever, a  two-years'  rotation  frequently  intervenes,  so  as  to  allow  the 
root  to  develop  unhampered.  The  shoots  two  years  old  are  used 
for  the  framework  of  heavy  baskets.  The  cutting  takes  place  in 
JuJy  and  August.     Krahe,  however,  advises  cutting  in  November. 

The  first  cost  of  an  Osier  plantation  is  very  high.  After  Krahe, 
the  net  yield  amounts  to  $32  per  acre  per  annum. 


182 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  COMPOSITE  FOREST 

Paragraph  LXXIII.     Genesis   of  the  composite 
forest  and  its   types. 

The  composite  forest  contains  specimens  having  originated  from 
seeds  as  well  as  specimens  having  originated  from  sprouts. 

The  primeval  forests  found  in  the  Chestnut  region  of  the  South- 
ern Appalachians,  notably  on  windswept  sites,  exhibit  this  form 
frequently. 

Where  the  virgin  character  of  the  hardwood  forest  has  been 
destroyed  by  fire  and  maltreatment,  sprout-forests  and  seed-forests 
are  intermixed  frequently. 

All  over  the  Piedmont  Plateau  there  are  found  huge  tracts  of 
Pine  and  hardwood  land  wherein  the  Pines  are  evidently  the  off- 
spring of  seeds,  while  the  hardwoods  show  the  earmarks  of  sprout 
growth. 

H.  S.  Graves,  in  his  "  Principles  of  handling  woodlands  "  dis- 
tinguishes between  two  "  systems  "  of  composite  forest : 

a.  Coppice  Avith  standards,  when  the  bulk  of  the  forest  area  is 
occupied  by  sprouts  cut  in  short    rotations; 

b.  Pole-Avood  coppice,  when  an  even-aged  stand  of  sprouts  and 
trees  from  seeds  is  allowed  to  grow  to  pole- wood  size  (40-70  years 
of  age),  and  then  reproduced  in  part  by  sprouts,  in  part  by  natural 
seeding. 

The  form  of  coppice  under  (with)  standards  is  the  most  im- 
portant sylvicultural  form  of  the  composite  forest.  It  is  used 
extensively  in  the  old  country.  It  was  introduced,  in  suitable 
localities,  most  successfully  on  the  Biltmore  Estate.  Its  advantages 
are  such  as  to  commend  it  particularly  to  the  owner  of  hardwood 
forests  in  Eastern  North  America.  And  it  is  well  worth  while  to 
consider  it  in  detail. 

"  Coppice  under  standards  "  consists  of  an  underwood  and  of  an 
overwood. 

The  underwood  is  nothing  but  simple,  even-aged  coppice. 

The  overwood  exhibits  the  selection,  sometimes  the  group  form 
of  seed  forest,  and  is  supposed  to  recruit  itself  from  seedlings. 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

A.  The  under\70od: 

I.  Species:  The  species  forming  the  underwood  must  combine 
natural  sprouting  capacity  with  shade  endurance.  On  good  soil,  a 
smaller  amount  of  both  qualities  is  required.  Excellent  species  for 
underwood  are  Basswood;  Cliestnut;  Gum:  Hornbeam;  Calmia  and 
Rhododendron;  on  strong  soil,  Ash  and  Hickory;  underneath  a  light 
overwood  also  Oak.  ^ 

II.  Purpose:    The  underwood  supplies  or  may  supply 

a.  Companions  for  the  younger  age-classes  of  the  overwood, 
causing  them  to  form  clear  boles; 

b.  Protection  of  the  soil,  enriching  it  by  its  humus; 

c.  Firewood  and  small  timber;  also  tanning  material. 

The  underwood  yields  a  direct  revenue  only  in  case  "  c."  Ob- 
viously, where  there  is  no  market  for  firewood  or  small  timber,  the 
underwood  is  only  indirectly  useful. 

III.  Formation:  For  diameter,  vitality  and  number  of  stumps 
also  for  manner  and  season  of  cutting,  the  remarks  of  Par.  LXVIII. 
A.   (about  coppicing)   hold  good. 

B.  The    oTerivood: 

I.  Species:  The  species  forming  the  overwood  should  be  storm- 
firm  and  small  crowned.      Light  demanders  are  usually  preferred. 

Yellow  Pines  produce  wide-ringed  timber  on  strong  soil  and 
suffer  from  sleet.  Good  species  are:  ^\^lite  Oaks,  Red  Oak, 
Hickory,  Walnut,  Yellow  Poplar,  Black  Cherry,  Locust,  Larch,  etc.; 
on  poorer  soil  Yellow  Pines  and  Long-leaf  Pine  (over  Black  Jack). 

II.  Age-classes:  The  number  of  age-classes  in  a  normal  over- 
wood  equals  the  fraction  3.  wherein 

R  represents  the  length  of  the  rotation  in  the  overwood,  and 
r  represents  the  length  of  the  rotation  in  the  underwood. 
The  normal  difference  of  age  between  consecutive  classes  is  "  r  " 
years. 

III.  Normal  formation:  The  overwood  is  composed  of  "stand- 
ards "  regenerated,  at  the  year  of  coppiced  underwood,  from  self- 
sown  seed  falling  from  the  overwood  or,  in  the  cultured  forest,  from 
planted  seedlings.  The  seedlings  of  the  overwood  grow  up  im- 
merged  and  often  badly  endangered  in  the  new  imderwood.  When 
this  is  coppiced  at  the  age  of  "  r "  years,  an  improvement  cutting 
takes  place  simultaneously  removing  misshapen  or  damaged  stand- 
ards of  the  various  older  classes  as  well  as  the  weaklings  in  the 
youngest  class.      By  this  improvement  cutting  the  leaf  canopy  of 

184 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

tlie  standards,  which  has  had  ample  chance  of  enh^rgement  during 
the  past  "  r  "  years,  is  cut  back  to  a  normal  limit. 

The  older  an  age-class  is,  the  smaller  is  the  number  of  its 
constituents. 

C  Abnormal    formation    of    over  wood    and    underwood: 

A  normally  proportioned  and  normally  formed  overwood  is 
never  found.      Deficiencies  lie 

1.  In  a  lack  of  one  or  the  other  age-class; 

2.  In  an  abnormal  number  of  coiastituents  per  class; 

3.  In  the  fact,  that  the  overwood  is  partially  recruited  from 
stoolshoots  and  not  from  seedlings. 

Abnormal  cojipice  over-standards  is  the  usual  consequence  of  the 
culling  of  primeval  hardwoods  or  of  primeval  pineries  forming  a 
superstructure  over  Oaks,  Hickories,  Gums,  etc. 

The  burned  slopes  and  outskirts  of  the  Alleghanies  usually 
belong  to  the  coppice-under-standard  form.  The  fire-coppiced  under- 
wood here  consists  of  Soft  Maple,  Calmia,  Rhododendron,  Chestnut, 
Oaks,  Hickories,  Black  Gum,  Sourwood,  Halesia,  etc.,  etc.,  all  of 
which  are  usually  devoid  of  value.. 

Culled  and  fired  forest  of  Pinus  echinata,  taeda  and  palustris 
frequently  belong  to  the  same  form,  with  Oaks  in  the  imderwood 
and  the  Pines  in  the  overwood. 


Paragraph  LXXIV.     Peda^o^ie    of   the   coppice 
under   standards. 

Coppice  under  standards  is  or  may  be  tended  by  cleaning, 
weeding,  improvement  cutting,  pruning  and  thinning. 

Thinnings  are  applied  to  the  underwood  only;  whilst  the  over- 
wood  alone  is  the  object  of  pruning. 

A.  Cleaning  purports  to  eliminate  undesirable  shoots  in  young 
coppice,  or  removes  desirable  shoots  liable  to  interfere  with  the 
development  of  overwood  seedlings  imbedded  in  tlie  coppice. 

B.  Weeding  removes  weed  trees,  usually  tending  to  form  new 
sprouts  f)-om  the  stumps  of  the  weed  trees  removed.  Weeding  is 
a  necessity  where  a  culled  forest  is  to  be  converted  into  a  cultured 
forest,  the  culled  forest  containing  a  large  number  of  %veed  trees. 

At  Biltraore,  the  weed  trees  removed  are  Black  Gum  over- 
shadowing   tlie   coppice    and    the   Pine    seedlings    standing   therein; 

185 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

fire-scalded   Oaks   or    Hickories,    bent    and    low    crowned;    wolfs    of 
Yellow  Pine;  pretentious  Dogwoods  or  Halesias  and  so  on. 

C.  Improvement  cuttings  improve  the  prospects  of  the  over- 
wood,  remove  undesirable  members  of  the  overwood  and  regulate 
the  number  of  the  constituents  forming  an  age-class  of  the  over- 
wood.  "  The  normal  cuttings  in  the  overwood  ai-e  improvement 
cuttings." 

In  semi-normal  woods,  the  oldest  class  of  the  overwood  is 
entirely  removed.  Class  II  is  reduced  to  the  former  membership 
of  Class  I;  Class  III  is  reduced  to  the  former  membership  of 
Class  II,  etc.  It  stands  to  reason,  that  the  least  desirable  mem- 
bers of  a  class  should  be  thus  removed.  In  semi-normal  woods, 
the  improvement  cuttings  take  place  at  the  time  at  which  the 
underwood  is  ripe  for  coppicing. 

The  improvement  cutting  yields  timber  of  all  sorts  and  of  all 
sizes  obtained  from  the  various  age-classes. 

The  improvement  cutting  does  not  regularly  intend  to  help 
regeneration.  Frequently,  of  course,  the  stumps  of  trees  removed 
by  the  improvement  cutting  form  sprouts  partaking  in  the  coppice- 
tier. 

D.  Pruning:  Dead  branches  of  the  overwood  trees  might  be 
removed  to  develop  timber  clear  of  dead  knots. 

Live  branches  of  overwood  trees  formed  low  on  the  bole  are 
removed  to  lessen  the  intensity  of  the  shade  to  which  the  under- 
wood and  the  seedlings  imbedded  therein  are  locally  subjected. 

The  members  of  the  overwood,  owing  to  their  free  position, 
are  apt  to  form  and  retain  heavy  branches.  The  act  of  pruning 
in  coppice  under  standards  corresponds  with  that  described  in  para- 
graph LXIII  for  high  forest. 

The  coppice  is  pruned  only  in  rare  instances,  f.  i.,  for  the  im- 
provement of  oak  tanbark. 

E.  Thinnings  are  sometimes  indicated  in  dense  coppice  in  order 
to  increase  the  food  and  light  supply  of  the  youngest  age-class  of 
overwood  imbedded  in  the  coppice;  or  in  order  to  increase  gradually 
the  air  space  surrounding  the  members  of  that  class,  so  as  not  to 
subject  them  to  the  shock  of  sudden  exposure  at  the  time  of  cop- 
picing; or  to  obtain  the  ends  of  Par.  LXII.  A.,  especially  where 
the  overwood  classes  appear  in  groups;  or  to  improve  the  quality 
and  the  quantity  of  the  bark  in  tanbark  coppice. 

In  all  cases,  the  thinning  must  yield  a  surplus  revenue. 

186 


THE    ART    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

Paragraph  LXXV.    Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice 
under  standards. 

The  primeval  woods  do  not  contain  any  form  of  coppice  under 
standards.  In  culled  hardwood  forests,  on  the  other  hand,  these- 
forms  are  almost  regularlj^  met  with. 

A.  Culled  forms   of  coppice  under  standards. 

I.  Characteristics:  Primeval  hardwood  forests  are  usually 
paucivendible  only.  After  lumbering  the  merchantable  species  and 
sizes,  a  rank  growth  of  coppice  shoots  frequently  enters  an  appear- 
ance under  the  assistance  of  fires,  overshadowed  by  poles  and  trees 
of  all  age -classes  devoid  of  present  value.  Many  individuals  of  the 
overwood  are  badly  burned;  or  are  hollow,  fungus  decayed,  worm 
riddled,  etc. 

Thus  whilst  the  underwood  consists  of  fire  coppice  or  shoots 
sprouting  from  the  stumps  of  merchantable  trees,  the  overwood  con- 
sists of  vmdesirable  species  and  of  immature  trees  usually  crippled 
by  firing  and  felling.  In  addition,  there  are  plenty  of  weed  trees 
left  on  the  ground.  The  younger  age-classes  of  the  overwood  are 
usually  absent. 

In  forests  originally  composed  of  a  Pine  overwood  and  of  a 
hardwood  underwood — a  form  once  frequently  found  all  over  the 
Southeast — the  lumberman  usually  removes  merely  the  taller  Pines 
scaling  over  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  smaller  Pines,  if  fireproof, 
henceforth  join  with  the  hardwood  trees  and  hardwood  poles  in 
the  formation  of  an  overwood.  The  underwood  consisting  of  miser- 
able fire  sprouts  is  continuously  clipped  by  forest  fires.  The  butts 
of  these  "  snags  "  are  flattened  on  the  ground,  as  if  liquid  wood 
had  hardened  on  it.  The  shoots,  weakly  inserted  on  the  callus, 
can  be  torn  off  easily. 

If  these  snags  are  cut,  fresh  shoots  will  form,  of  much  greater 
vigor  and  of  greater  strength  at  the  point  of  insertion. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  culled  coppice  under  standards: 

The  number  of  forms  of  coppice  under  standards  is  particularly 
great,  owing  to  the  variations  occurring  in  the  tiers  of  forest,  viz.: 
the  overwood  and  the  underwood. 

a.  The  overwood  is  omni,  multi,  or  pauci  vendible,  as  the  case 
may  be.  It  is  arranged  either  in  groups  or  in  patches  (individuals) 
imbedded  in  the  coppice.      Thus  we  obtain: 

1.  The  form  of  culled  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
group  type,  and 

187 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

2.  The  form  of  culled  copi)ice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
selection  type. 

b.  The  leaf  canopy  of  the  standards  covers  a  certain  percentage 
-of  the  ground.  This  percentage,  where  high,  forces  the  underwoods 
into  a  minor  role;  where  small,  it  allots  to  the  underwood  the 
major  part. 

The  Long-leaf  Pine  woods  of  the  South,  after  lieavy  culling, 
illustrate  the  latter  form;  the  Shortleaf  Pine  woods  of  the  Bilt- 
more  Plateau  exhibit  the  former  form.  These  forms  might  be 
designated  as: 

1.  The  form  of  prevailing  coppice  under  standards; 

2.  The  form  of  coppice  under  prevailing  standards. 

c.  According  to  the  means  of  coppicing,  there  should  be  dis- 
tinguished 

1.  The  form  of  fire-culled  coppice  under  standards; 

2.  The  form  of  axe-culled  coppice  under  standards. 

III.  Treatment  of  culled  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 

Improvement  cuttings  and,  where  improvement  cuttings  cannot 
be  made,  weeding  are  usually  required. 

Fire  coppice  should  be  cut  down,  wherever  the  growth  is 
stagnant. 

An  undue  preponderance  of  standards  may  be  checked  by  the 
use  of  the  axe. 

Planting  of  seedlings  can  usually  be  dispensed  with.  Where  it 
■is  advisable  to  plant  seedlings,  the  coppice  must  be  cut  clean  to 
vbegin  with. 

B.  Cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  stand- 
ards is  the  lack  of  weed  trees  and  of  unhealthy  standards;  further 
the  geometric  regularity  of  the  figures  considered  as  compartments 
and  sub-compartments. 

The  overwood  is  composed  of  storm-firm  and  light-demanding 
species. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
As  in  the  culled  forest  there  should  be  distinguished: 

a.  The  form  of  cultured  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
-group   type   with 

1.  Prevailing  coppice,  or  Avith 

2.  Prevailing   standards. 

b.  The  form  of  cultured  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
selection  type  with 

ISS 


THE   ART    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

1.  Prevailing  coppice,  or  with 

2.  Prevailing   standards. 

The  standards  might  be  planted  in  regular  rows  (Charles 
Heyer's  idea)  or  in  regular  groups  or — irregularly — in  suitable 
places;  or  they  might  be  recruited  from  self-sown  seed  under  the 
selection  type. 

III.  Treatment  of  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 

The  regeneration  of  the  overwood  as  well  as  its  pedagogic  is 
difficult,  unless  the  group  type  is  carried  through.  Individual  seed- 
lings are  very  apt  to  be  suffocated  in  the  mass  of  faster-growing 
coppice  and  require  continuous,  careful  attention.  Thinnings  are 
required  to  prepare  the  youngest  class  of  standards  immerged  in^ 
the  coppice  for  its  future  task. 

The  overwood  is  sometimes  pruned — in  this  ease  of  dead  as  welb 
as  of  live  branches. 


Paragraph    LXXVI.       Critical    remarks   on    the 
coppice  under  standards. 

The  coppice-under-standards  forest  combines  the  good  qualities 
of  the  high  forest  with  those  of  the  coppice  forest.  It  furnishes 
timber  of  all  sizes  in  the  largest  possible  variety.  It  requires  a 
moderate  investment  sunk  into  the  growing  stock  and  allows  the- 
overwood  to  grow  into  log  size  at  a  very  fast  rate.  It  is  a  good, 
form  for  the  OAvners  of  small  woodlands  desiring  steady  returns. 
It  protects   the  fertility  of  the  soil  better  than  the  coppice  form. 

The  logs  furnished  by  the  overwood  raised  selectionwise  are 
necessarily  branchy  and  wide  ringed,  with  the  incident  bad  and 
good  qualities  of  such  logs.  The  trees  usually  do  not  yield  more- 
than  two  saw  logs. 

Where  the  imderwood  is  unsalable  or  low  priced,  stress  must 
be  laid  on  a  prevalence  of  the  overwood.  Where  it  is  valuable  as 
a  tanning  material  or  as   wagon  stock,   the   underwood  is   favored. 

The  danger  from  fire,  since  hardwoods  are  usually  at  stake,, 
is  not  very  great.  The  density  of  the  brushy  underwood,  liowever,. 
aggravates   the   difficulties   confronting   the   fire   fighter. 

In  Europe,  the  forms  of  "coppice  under  standards"  are  more 
and  more  abandoned  and  restricted  to  the  inundation  districts  along 
the  rivers.  Here,  on  strong  soil,  the  undergi-owth  endures  an  enor- 
mous amoimt  of  shade,  and  the  overwood  develops  fairly  long  boles, 
in  spite  of  a  free  position. 


A  :M  E  R  I  C  A  X    SYLVICULTURE 

The  coppice-under-standards  form  in  Europe  requires  careful, 
-niinute  and  honest  management:  careful,  because  the  leaf  canopy 
of  the  overwood  rapidly  increases  during  the  rotation  of  the  under- 
"wood;  minute,  because  individual  trees  or  groups  of  trees  must  be 
continuously  watched;  honest,  because  an  unscrupulous  forester  or 
a  thoughtless  owner  may  easily  and  heavily  reduce  the  capital 
of  the  forest  whilst  claiming  to  merely  withdraw  revenue  pro- 
duced by  it. 

In  America,  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Alleghanies  and 
in  the  pineries  of  the  South,  the  form  is  destined  to  play  a  most 
important  role.  The  form  exists  and  will  have  to  be  retained  for 
decades  of  years  to  come,  owing  to  its  tempting  financial  merits; 
the  ease  and  cheapness  of  regeneration;  the  short  period  of  waiting 
between  remunerative  cuts;  the  variety  of  produce;  the  fast  rate 
of  growth;  the  small  amount  of  growing  stock  required  for 
""  sustained  "  yields  and  so  on. 

In  the  course  of  time,  curtailing  the  cut  of  standards  or 
allowing  the  coppice  to  grow  into  larger  sizes,  the  forester  may 
gradually  convert  the  coppice-under-standards  forest  into  a  seed 
forest.  The  average  growing  stock,  per  acre,  in  the  seed  forest 
■contains  about  tAvice  as  many  cords  of  wood  as  the  average  grow- 
ing stock  in  the  coppice-under-standards  forest. 

On  the  other  hand,  by  removing  all  standards,  the  form  of 
simple  sprout  "forest  is  readily  obtained. 

in  the  Oak-coppice-under-Pine-standard  forest  of  Biltmore  it 
lias  been  observed  tliat  the  Pine  poles  suffer  less  from  bark  beetles 
than  they  do  in  the  denser  polewoods  of  the  seed  forest  of  Pine. 


Paragraph  LXXVII.     Coppice  under  standards 
by  species. 

By  culling  and  firing,  every  primeval  forest  of  hardwoods 
■existing  in  the  United  States  is  converted  into  coppice  under 
^standards.  Again,  many,  nay,  almost  all  two-storied  high  forests 
in  the  South  having  Pine  in  the  overwood  and  hardwood  in  the 
imderwood  present  the  form  of  coppice  under  standards  in  a 
modified  manner. 

The  number  of  constellations  of  species  fit  for  a  place  in  the 
overwood  and  in   the  underwood  is  endless. 

A   few    remarks    on    characteristic    forms    must    suffice. 

A.  Chestnut-coppice  under  standards  of  Yellow  Poplar, 

"White,  Chestnut   and  Red  Oak,  Hickory,   Ash,  Locust, — the  Pisgah 
Torest  form.  190 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Certain  age-classes  of  the  standards  (the  sapling  stage  and 
the  pole  stage)  are  invariably  absent,  owing  to  the  fires  of  the 
last  decades.  The  number  of  Chestnut  stumps  is  deficient.  The 
weed  species  of  the  forest  (Halesia,  Soft  Maple,  Dogwood,  Calmia, 
etc.)  readily  replenish  the  coppice -stratum.  The  standards  regen- 
erate their  kind  readily  where  the  weeds  are  not  too  rank.  No 
means  are  known  by  which  to  extirpate  the  tree  and  bush  weeds 
preventing  n.  s.  r.  of  the  standards  in  a  sufficiently  promising  way. 
Heavy  pasturage  in  early  spring  practiced  before  the  Chestnut 
.stumps  had  time  to  sprout  and  before  the  seeds  of  the  standards 
(excepting  Chestnut,  Oak  and  White  Oak)  had  time  for  germina- 
tion may  solve  the  problem.  Such  pasturage,  whilst  it  checks  the 
weeds,  presses  the  seeds  of  the  standards  at  the  same  time  into 
the  mineral  soil.  Other  remedies  are:  Deadening;  cutting  with 
kigh  stumps  left;  bark  peeling;  removing  side  branches  with  a 
brush  axe,  etc.  However,  entire  extirpation  of  the  ligneous  weeds 
does  not  seem  financially  advisable  at  the  present  time.  Frequently 
it  might  be  best  to  leave  the  weeds  untouched  for  the  time  being, 
postponing  the  battle  until  the  undergrowth  of  seedlings  and  cop- 
pice shoots  requires  increased  influx  of  light.  Then,  top,  the  cutting 
•of  the  weeds  will  force  them  to  be  satisfied  with  a  subsistence  below 
the   level  of  the  underwood. 

Chestnut  standards  should  not  be  left,  since  the  shock  of  a 
sudden  change  of  surroundings  causes  them  to  sicken.  The  adjoin- 
ing woods  will  tend  to  reinforce  the  regeneration  area  by  n.  s.  r. 
■of  Chestnut,  where  the  compartments  simultaneously  coppiced  are 
small  or  narrow.  Artificial  reinforcing  seems  unnecessary  although 
the  planting  of  Walnuts  in  suitable  places  may  pi-ove  remunerative. 

B.  Oak  coppice  mixed  w^ith.  Hickory  coppice  under  Pine 
standards. 

This  form  prevails  on  the  Biltmore  Plateau  and  over  vast  areas 
in  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, etc. 

Sylvicultural  treatment  is  impossible  unless  the  Oak  can  be 
removed  to  a  nearby  fuel-market. 

Rotations  for  the  coppice  of  thirty  to  forty  years  seem  best. 

Shorter  rotations  are  required  where  the  coppice  is  badly 
•damaged   by   fires. 

In  seed  years  of  Yellow  Pine,  the  coppiced  area  should  be  as 
large  as  compatible  with  the  market.  It  might  be  wise  to  cut 
«arly  in  fall  and  to  burn  the  coppice  before  the  Pine  seeds  begin 
to  fall.     Seed  years  of  Pine  at  Biltmore  occur  at  intervals  of  seven 

191 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

years.  Improvement  cuttings  should  make  up  the  sustained  yield, 
as  far  as  possible,  in  years  of  deficient  seeding;  or  such  compart- 
ments should  be  taken  in  hand,  in  which  the  coppice  growth  is 
richly  beset  with  Pine  poles  and  Pine  saplings. 

In  the  course  of  the  improvement  cuttings,  the  nuclei  of  n.  s.  r. 
of  Pine  require  careful  attention.  Weeds  like  Chinquapin  and 
Black  Gum  are  checked  wherever  they  obstruct  the  underwood; 
where  they  form  part  of  the  vmderwood,  especially  imder  groups 
of  Pine,  they  should  be  thankfully  accepted  as  shade-bearing  im- 
provers of  the  soil. 

White  Pine  is  not  adapted  to  the  formation  of  standards. 
During  the  earlier  stages,  it  retains  its  branches  badly  where 
isolated  in  Oak  Coppice.  During  the  later  pole  stage,  it  is  apt 
to  suffer  from  windfall.  Groups  of  White  Pine  standards  will 
answer  better  than  standards  individually  scattered. 


192 


CHAPTER  V 

PROPAGATION  OF  FOREST  PRODUCTS  OTHER 
THAN  WOOD  AND  TIMBER 

Paragraph  LXXVIII.     Raising  of  forest  by-pro- 
ducts. 

In  many  cases  better  revenvie  is  obtained  from  the  by-products 
raised  in  the  forest,  than  from  the  production  of  wood  and  timber. 
In  backwood  sections,  closed  to  traffic,  forest  pasture  often  yields 
the  only  means  of  obtaining  revenue.  In  densely  wooded  districts, 
the  combination  of  agriculture  with  tree  growth  is  often  advisable. 
The  main  products  thus  obtained  and  the  industries  connected  with 
their  production  are: 

A.  Tanbark   and   raising   of   tanbark: 

The  thickness  of  the  bark  used  for  tanning  purposes  and  ob- 
tained either  under  a  high  forest  or  under  a  coppice  forest  system 
is  increased  by  proper  thinnings.  In  Oak  bark  coppice  abroad  the 
number  of  stumps  per  acre  is  about  2,000,  reinforced  by  stump 
planting  at  each  cutting.  The  healthier  the  growth  of  the  shoots, 
the  better  are  the  tanning  contents  of  the  product. 

In  America,  at  the  present  time,  no  difference  is  made  in  the 
price  of  old,  corky  bark  and  of  young,  fleshy  bark  obtained  from 
shoots  but  five  inches  m  diameter. 

B.  Cork    industry: 

The  cork  industry  conducted  in  Southern  France,  Spain, 
Portugal  and  Northern  Africa.  For  America,  its  introduction  seems 
highly  advisable. 

Experiments  made  in  Georgia  and  in  the  Carolinas  with  plan- 
tations of  Cork  Oak  ha\e  produced  very  healthy  trees;  for  reasons 
unknown,  however,  the  cork  production  was  deficient.  Possibly  the 
wrong  species  or  the  wrong  variety  was  selected,  or  else  mistakes 
were  made  in  choosing  soil,  exposure  and  sylvicultural  treatment. 

Mayr  recommends  experiments  with  Quercus  variabilis  for  the 
section  of  Germany  productive   of  Castanea  vesca. 

C.  Forest  pasture: 

Up   to    1880,   forest   pasture   in   the   Pine   woods   of   the   South 
(Cane-brakes)   and  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Alleghanies,  and 
193 


AMERICAX    SYLVICULTURE 

also  of  the  Lake  States,  lias  occupied  the  rank  of  the  most 
important  forest  industry.  Nowadays,  pasture  as  indicated  on 
many  a  windswept  ridge  where  the  growth  of  timber  is  stunted, 
whilst  the  atmospheric  moisture  allows  of  a  luxurious  production 
of  grass.  Under  nut-bearing  trees,  liog  pasture  is  highly  remuner- 
ative. In  "  strong "  coves,  the  growth  of  weeds  offers  splendid 
forage   for  cattle. 

The  more  inaccessible  the  forest,  the  less  is  the  value  of  the 
tree  growth.  Here  an  industry  is  advisable  which  converts  vege- 
table matter  into  animal  matter. 

The  advantage  gained  by  pasturage  during  and  previous  to 
regeneration  frequently  reduces  the  expense  of  regeneration. 

Whether  the  fencing  of  forest  pastures  is  advisable  depends  on 
cii-cumstances.  A  two-stringed  barbed  wire  fence  costs  .$40  per 
mile. 

Goats,  as  extirpators  of  woody  weeds  (Corylus,  Azalea)  are 
frequently  useful  on  mountain  pastures. 

Woody  weeds  damaging  the  pastures  are  kept  in  clieck  by 
continuous  mowing,  especially  if  mowed  in  August.  A  limited  use 
of  fire,  too,  improves  the  pasture.  Forest  pastures  are  invaluable 
as  fire  lanes. 

Pasturage  of  cattle  extends  in  Pisgah  Forest  from  May  1st  to 
October  15th.  Sheep  and  hogs  require  feeding  only  in  February. 
The  revenue  made  per  month  amounts  per  head  of  cattle,  to  fifty 
cents;  of  horses,  seventy-five  cents;   of  sheep,  ten  cents. 

Where  the  growth  of  trees  on  a  permanent  pasture  is  too 
dense,  deadening  or  coppicing  is  required.  Where  it  is  too  little 
or  where  erosion  sets  in,  the  pasture  must  be  abandoned  for  a 
number  of  years.  Dead  trees  placed  horizontalh^  on  pastured 
slopes  safeguard  the  pasture  by  terracing  it. 

In  European  and  in  Indian  forests,  pasture  still  plays  a  most 
important  role,  frequently  as  a  prescriptive  right  encumbering 
forests  owned  by  the  CroAvn  or  by  the  aristocracy. 

Relative  to  forest  pasture  in  the  National  Forests,  see 
Schenck's   "  Forest  Policy,"  pages   155   and   157. 

Relative  to  the  protection  of  the  forests  against  undue  damages 
resulting  from  forest  pasture,  compare  Schenck's  "  Foi'est  Protec- 
tion," page  12,  f.f. 

The  American  public,  for  one  reason  or  another,  has  been  slow 
to  realize  that  the  use  of  forests  (by  the  tax-paying  owners)  for 
pasturage  is  as  correct,  as  justifiable,  as  legitimate,  as  is  the  use 
of  a  farm  for  pasturage.  Forest  pastures,  of  course,  should  not  be 
maltreated  any  more  tlian  farm  pastures. 
194 


THE  ART  OF  THE  SECOND  GROWTH 

Unjust  and  lunvise  it  is  if  the  commonweal,  in  non-stocklaw- 
countries,  permits  of  the  unrestricted  use  of  the  woodlands  for 
pasturage  by  those  who  neither  own  them  nor  pay  the  taxes 
thereon;   and  who  do  not  have  any  interest  in  their  perpetuation. 

Forest  pasture  in  the  Pine  woods  of  the  South  and  of  the 
Southwest,  in  the  forests  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  of  the 
Cascades,   is   of   utmost   economic   importance. 

Forest  pasturage  requires  regulation  in  the  following  points: 
Number  of  animals  per  acre;  species  of  stock  and  of  trees;  season 
of  pasturage;  remuneration;  closed  years;  firing;  responsibility; 
supervision;   salting;   improvements;   access. 

D.  Forest    fruit   raising: 

I.  Pecan. 

Large  investments  are  being  made  in  Pecan  plantations  in  the 
South.  Usually  seedlings  three  years  old  are  planted  fifty  to 
sixty  feet  apart.  Payable  crops  are  expected  fifteen  years  after 
planting.  Cultivation  and  fertilization  of  Pecan  orchards  are  re- 
quired just  as  in  apple  orchards. 

II.  Apple-trees  planted  on  freshly  cutover  woodlands  (North- 
west slopes)   are  sfiid  to  be  particularly  promising. 

III.  Chestnuts.  Chestnuts  are  either  obtained  from  the  woods 
where  Chestnut  trees  are  grown  for  timber,  or  from  orchards.  In 
Pisgah  Forest  seed  years  are  said  to  occur  every  seven  years.  The 
nuts  sell  at  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  bushel.  The  mountaineers 
burn  the  w^oods  to  more  readily  uncover  the  nuts. 

Orcharding  combined  with  grafting  of  French  Chestnuts  (Cas- 
tanea  vesca)  on  the  American  species  has  been  tried  in  Pennsylvania 
with  little  success  owing  to  forest  fires. 

In  Southern  France  a  large  revenue  is  obtained  from  the  nuts 
($5  to  $6  annually  from  a  good  tree). 

IV.  Acorns.  The  acorns  of  the  White  Oaks  are  ground  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee  (Postum  Cereal  80%).  In  addition  acorns 
are  of  high  value  for  pannage  and  in  game  preserves. 

V.  Berries.  The  crop  of  berries  growing  in  the  forest  is  locally 
leased  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  huckleberry  crop  is  improved 
by  periodical  burning. 

VI.  Nuts  from  Western  Nut-Pines. 

E.  Maple  sugar: 

The  production  of  sugar  depends  on  the  size  and  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  individual  trees,  influenced  by  careful  thinning.  An 
underwood  and  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  is  helpful.  Planted  sugar 
orchards  are  rare  and  suffer  from  sun  scald  and  from  hardening 
soil.  195 


AMERICAN    SYLVICULTURE 

F.  Naval  stores: 

Xo  means  are  known  tending  to  increase  the  production  of 
naval  stores.     The  best  yiekl  is  obtained  from  healthy,  large  trees, 

G.  Rubber  and  guttapercba: 
H.  Truffles  and  cbampignons : 

I.  Gingseng    (Aralia  quinquef olia) : 

Gingseng  grows  in  the  Alleghanies  in  well-sheltered  north  and 
northwest  coves  of  greatest  fertility.  The  young  roots  are  easily 
transplanted  into  nursery  beds.  The  cultivation  of  gingseng  in  the 
woods,  however,  is  not  practicable. 

J.  Sumach  leaves: 

The  leaves,  nsed  for  tanning  on  a  large  scale,  are  gathered  on 
abandoned  fields  in  Virgina.  Xo  care  seems  to  be  devoted  to  the 
reproduction. 

K.  Pharmaceutical  weeds: 

A  large  number  of  forest  weeds  have  a  pharmaceutical  value 
and   might   be  locally   propagated   and   fostered. 

L.  Peat  bogs: 

Peat  bogs  reproduce  themselves  where  but  the  top  layers  are 
taken  off  periodically.  Small  benches  are  left  between  the  pits 
utilized. 

M.  Fish  and  Game: 

In  the  Prussian  State  forests,  twelve  per  cent  of  the  annual 
revenue  is  obtained  from  hunting  and  fishing.  Private  owners 
in  the  Adirondacks  and  in  the  South  draw  large  revenues  from 
leasing  the  exclusive  privilege  of  hunting  and  fishing.  For  par- 
ticulars regarding  the  raising  and  nursing  of  Fish  and  Game  see 
lectures  on  "  Fish  and  Game  Keeping." 

Paragraph  LXXIX.      Combination    of    sylvicul- 
ture   and    agriculture. 

As  the  woodlot  belongs  to  the  farm,  so  does  the  farm  embraced 
by  woodland  belong  to  the  forest. 

Strange  as  it  sounds:  The  forester  is  charged  sometimes  with 
the  administration  of  more  farmland  than  of  woodland. 

A  fair  practical  knowledge  of  agriculture  is  indispensable  with 
the  administrator  of  forests.  Truly  agricultural  land  within  the 
forest  should  be  cleared  in  due  course,  in  pursuance  of  the  maxim 
that  every  acre  of  ground  must  be  placed  under  the  (permanently) 
most  remunerative  industry. 

19G 


THE    AET    OF    THE     SECOND    GROWTH 

The  forest  farm  produces  victuals  for  the  lumber  camp  and 
forage  for  the  teams  and  yokes;  it  yields  the  best  possible  fire 
lanes. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
a  local,  permanent  or  temporary  combination  of  sylviculture  and 
agriculture  is  frequently  indicated,  in  sprout  forests  as  well  as  in 
seed  forests,  in  cultured  forests  as  well  as  in  culled  forests. 

A.  Reasons  prompting  the  forester  to  adopt  a  combina- 
tion of  sylviculture  and  agriculture  may  lie  in  the  following 
considerations : 

I.  Frequently  it  does  not  pay  to  eradicate  the  "  weeds  "  in  the 
forest  previous  to  artificial  or  natural  I'egeneration  by  n.  s.  r.  In 
such  cases,  the  forester  may  take  advantage  of  the  fertility  stored 
up  in  the  humus,  using  it  for  a  number  of  years  for  the  production 
of  field  crops  and  freeing  the  soil  incidentally  from  competing  weeds. 

II.  Similarly  the  forester  is  often  at  a  loss  to  save  his  regen- 
erations from  the  attacks  of  wild  or  tame  animals.  Allowing  the 
plantations  to  pass  their  earliest  youth  in  the  midst  of  farm  crops 
wliich  pay  for  the  expense  of  protection  from  animals  by  imme- 
diate returns,  protection  for  the  plantations  is  obtainable  at  a 
reduced  charge. 

III.  The  fertility  stored  away  in  the  accumulated  humus,  al- 
though exhaustible  within  three  or  four  years,  frequently  furnishes 
a  snug  revenue  (especially  where  farmland  is  scarce,  as  in  all 
mountain  districts)  defraying  the  outlay,  or  part  of  the  outlay, 
required  for  successful  reforestation.  In  a  heavy  leaf-mould,  many 
species  refuse   to  regenerate  their  kind. 

IV.  In  the  prairies,  agriculture  must  precede  the  tree  planta- 
tion, which  will  not  thrive  in  soil  devoid  of  porosity.  The  planta- 
tion of  trees,  on  the  other  hand,  will  protect  the  farm  from  drought 
in  summer  and  from  high  winds  during  winter;  it  will  shelter  the 
stock  during  severe  blizzards,  etc. 

Henry  von  Cotta,  as  early  as  1819,  advocated  plantations  of 
trees  in  rows  twelve  feet  to  fifty  feet  apart,  the  intervening  spaces 
to  be  used  for  agriculture.  The  trees  and  the  rows  were  to  be 
decimated  gradually,  and  were  again  to  be  reinforced  in  keeping 
with  the  reqviirements  of  the  farm. 

Cotta's  plan  might  be  successful  where  drought  is  to  be  dreaded 
during  summer,  scorching  the  grass  meadow  and  the  grain  field. 

B.  Modern   application; 

I.  Field  crops  intervening  between  two  generations  of  the  forest. 
All  over  the  pineries  of  the  South  where  abandoned  fields  pro- 
duce splendid  polewoods  of  Pine,  the  woods  are  cut  at  the  thirtieth 

197 


A  il  E  R  I  C  A  N    SYLVICULTURE 

to  sixtieth  year  of  the  trees;  the  soil  is  then  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  corn,  cotton  or  small  grain  for  a  number  of  years  and 
thereafter  allowed  to  revert  to  Pine  obtained  by  n.  s.  r.  from  adjoin- 
ing woods.  The  same  system  is  followed  by  thousands  of  farmers 
in  the  old  country. 

II.  Field  crops  temporarily  raised  amongst  and  together  with 
forest  crops. 

a.  In  sprout  forests: 

In  Germany,  the  owners  of  coppice  woods,  after  coppicing,  fre- 
quently burn  the  debris  on  the  ground,  ploughing  the  soil  roughly 
thereafter  and  using  it  for  small  grain  or  potatoes  as  long  as  the 
fresh  stool  shoots  do  not  overshadow  the  farm  crops  too  severely. 

This  system  allows  the  farmer  to  continuously  (although  inter- 
mittently) produce  field  crops  on  steep  slopes  liable  to  erosion,  with 
the  help  of  the  fertility  furnished  by  the  humus  and  by  the 
activity  of  the  tree  roots. 

b.  In   seed  forests: 

1.  In  the  early  stages  of  sylviculture,  acorns  and  pine  seeds 
were  frequently  planted  with  barley,  oats  or  summer  rye.  Compare 
Par.    XV. 

2.  Sir  D.  Brandis  has  established  in  Burmah  a  system  named 
"  toungya  "  by  which  seedlings  of  Teak,  planted  with  rice  by  native 
lessees  on  government  reserves,  obtain  protection  from  wild  animals 
and  tires  as  well  as  from  the  Bamboo  threatening  to  suffocate  the 
seedlings. 

3.  A  similar  system  has  been  practiced  since  1810  in  the  German 
Rhine  valley  where  splendid  polewoods  of  White  Oak  have  thus 
been  raised.  Here  in  years  past  the  returns  from  toungya  used  to 
more  than  cover  the  expense  of  forest  planting  and  protecting.  The 
field  crops  shade  the  Oak  slightly  and  tend  to  protect  it  from  the 
effect  of  late  frosts  as  well  as  from  the  attacks  of  grub  worms 
(Melolonthidae).  At  Darmstadt,  Germany,  the  pineries  are  often 
regenerated  by  this   method. 

4.  In  Western  N.  C,  the  expense  of  clearing  the  forest  for 
field  crops  amounts  to  ten  dollars  or  twenty  dollars,  according  to 
the  density  of  the  growing  stock  and  according  to  the  yield  derivable 
from  the  sale  of  timber  removed. 

On  good  forest  soil  a  few  years  of  corn  crops  are  apt  to  refund 
the  outlay  incurred  for  clearing. 

Thereafter  the  Pines,  the  Oaks,  the  Yellow  Poplars  and  the 
Ashes  of  the  adjoining  woods  will  quickly  produce  a  superior  plan- 
tation of  trees. 

Where  the  soil  is  stocked  with  tree  Aveeds,  and  where  immature 
trees  must  not  be  sacrificed,  the  system  can  be  strongly  endorsed. 
198 


ALPHABETIC  INDEX 


A  PAGE 

Acorns,   planting  of 60 

Advance  growth  types   of  natural  seed  regeneration 134 

Agriculture    combined   with    sylviculture 196 

Air  as  an  ecologic  factor 13 

Alder  seedlings 96 

Alder    seeds,   planting   of 63 

Ash    seed    forests 171 

Ash  seedlings 96,  100 

Ash  seeds,  planting  of 63 

Atlantic   forests 24 

B 

Ball  planting  of  seedlings 80 

Balsam  Mountains 4 

Basswood    seed    forests 168 

Basswood  seedlings 94 

Basswood  seeds,  planting  of 65 

Beech  nuts,   planting  of 62 

Beech   seed   forests 168 

Beech    seedlings 94 

Beech   sprout  forests 181 

Biltmore  Forest 4 

Birch   seedlings 96,  101 

Birch  seeds,  planting  of 62 

Black  Cherry   seeds,   planting  of 66 

Black  Gum  seeds,   planting  of 67 

Black  Locust  seedlings 94 

Black  Locust  seed^,  planting  of 65 

Buckeye   seeds,   planting  of 64 

Bunch  planting 72 

By-products,    raising    of 193 

C 

Catalpa   seedlings 97,  100 

Characteristics   of  forms  of  seed  forests 157 

199 


ALPHABETIC     INDEX 

PAGE 

Cherry   seedlings 97,  100 

Chestnut    coppice   under    standards 190 

Chestnut   seed   forests 166 

Chestnut  seedlings 95 

Chestnuts,   planting   of 01 

Chestnut   sprout   forests 181 

Classification  of  messmates: 

According   to   age 35 

According  to  size 35 

Cleaning : 

In  composite   forests 185 

In  seed  forests 144 

In  sprout  forests 176 

Cleared  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration 114 

Compartment  form 150 

Compartment    types    (methods) 115,  124,  130 

Composite   forests,   defined 30 

Composite  forests: 

Forms   of 187 

Genesis   of 183 

Pedagogic  of 185 

Systems  of 183 

Coning   the   cones 61 

Coppice  forests 174 

Coppice    under   standards 187 

Cork  industry 193 

Culled  seed  forests : 

Forms 1 54  f .f . 

Treatment 158 

Culled    sprout    forests 178 

Cultured  seed  forests: 

Forms 154  f.f. 

Treatment 159 

Cultured    sprout   forests 179 

Cuttings    ( osier ) 176 


D 

Dependent   species,  defined 31 

Density    of   stand 32 

Douglas    Fir   seedlings 99,  105 

Douglas   Fir   seeds,  planting  of 70 

200 


ALPHABETIC     INDEX 

E  PAGE 

Ecologic   factors   of  growth 12 

Elm  seedlings 12 

Elm  seeds,  planting  of 96 

Enesar,   interpretation  of Ill 

Even-aged  woods 36 


F 

Final   cutting   in  natural  seed  regeneration 128 

Fir     (abies)     seedlings 99,  105 

Fir  seeds,  planting  of 67 

Forest  gardens 86 

Forest  regions: 

Of  the  United   States 23 

Of  the  world 15 

Forms : 

Of  composite     forests 187 

Of  seed  forests 154 

Of  sprout  forests 177 

Fruit  raising  in  the  forests 195 


G 

Genesis : 

Of  composite     forests 183 

Of  seed  forests 47 

Of  sprout  forests 174 

Grazing  problem  in  the  forests 193 

Group  form 156 

Groups,  defined 30 

Group  types   (methods)   of  natural  seed  regeneration.  .  119,  132,  138 

Growing  space   of  a  tree 33 


H 

Heat  as  a   sylvie  factor .  .• 14 

Hemlock  seedlings 99,  107 

Hemlock  seeds,  planting  of 70 

Hickory    nuts,    planting    of 65 

Hickory  seed   forests 167 

Hickory  seedlings 97,  101 

Hickory  sprout  forests 181 

201 


ALPHABETIC     INDEX 

I 

Improvement  cutting:  page 

In  composite   forests 185 

In  seed   forests 14-i,  14G 

In  sprout  forests 177 

Intermediate   species 39 

J 

Jack   Pine   seedlings .  98,  103 

L 

Larch  seedlings 99 

Larch   seeds,   planting   of 70 

Lawson's   Cypress    seedlings 100,  106 

Lawson's  Cypress  seeds,  planting  of 71 

Leaf  covers    (canopies) 22 

Light  as  a  sylvic  factor 13 

Light   demanders 37 

Locust   sprout  forests 181 

M 

Maple  seed  forests , 170 

Maple  seedlings 96,  100 

Maple   seeds,  planting  of 64 

Methods  of  natural  seed  regeneration Ill  f .f . 

Mexican   forests 26 

Mixed    forests,    defined 31 

Mixed  woods  and  pure  woods 40 

Moisture   as   a   sylvic   factor 15 

Mound  planting 79 

N 

Natural   seed  regeneration 107 

Compartment  types 115,  124,  136 

Group  types 119,  132,  138 

Selection  types 120,  134,  140 

Strip  types 117,  130,  137 

Natural  seed  regeneration,  key  to  the  types  of Ill  f .f . 

Methods  of Ill  f-f. 

Types  of Ill  f.f. 

Natural  seed  regeneration,  types: 

Where  lumbering  coincides    with    rejuvenescence 122 

Where  lumbering  follows    after    rejuvenescence 134 

Where  lumbering  precedes  rejuvenescence 114 

202 


ALPHABETIC     INDEX 

PAGE 

N.  S.  E.,  interpretation  of  abbreviation Ill 

Nurseries 90  f  .f . 

Commercial 8-4 

Cultivation  in 92 

Famous  methods  of 93 

Fertilizer   required    in 87 

In    the    forest 85 

Planting  seeds  in 89 

Weeding  in 92 

O 

Oak   coppice  under  standards 191 

Oak    seed    forests 165 

Oak  seedlings 95 

Oak    sprout    forests 180 

Osier    culture 182 

Overwood  in  composite  forests 184 

P 

Pacific  forests 28 

Pasture  in   the   forests 193 

Pedagogic : 

Of  the  coniposit';  forest 185 

Of  the  seed  forest 144 

Of  the  sprout  forest 176 

Pine  seeds,  planting  of 68 

Pisgah   Forest 4 

Plantations,    cultivation    in 82 

Planting   boards    for   transplanting 91 

Planting,   geometrical   arrangement 72 

Planting,    season    for 81 

Planting,   results   of   experiments 100 

Planting    tools 78 

Poisons  for   seed  eating  animals 59 

Pole   wood  in   coppice 183 

Prairies,  planting  in  the 83 

Preparatory  cutting 125 

Preparatory  stage  of  natural  seed  regeneration 125 

Primeval  forests: 

Forms  of 154  f.f. 

Treatment  of 157 

Pri7iciples  of  sylviculture,  Mayr's ■ 42 

203 


ALPHABETIC     INDEX 

PAGE 

Protection  of  seedlings !)2 

Pruning : 

In  composite   forests 185 

In  seed    forests 144,  152 

In  sprout  forests I77 

Pure  forests,   defined ;j  1 

R 

Eed  Cedar  seedlings 99  lOG 

Eed  Cedar  seeds,  planting  of 71 

Regeneration    by    seeds 107 

Root  bacteria 22 

Root  suckers 175 

Rotation,  defined ' 35 

Ruling   species,   defined 31 

S 

Sassafras  seeds GU 

Seed    eating   animals 59 

Seed  forests: 

Cleaning  in 144 

Defined 30 

Described   by   species 165 

Seed  forests,   forms  of: 

Culled   forms   of 154  f.f . 

Cultured   forms   of 154  f.f. 

Primeval    forms    of 154  f.f. 

Seed  forests,  improvement  cuttings  in 144,  147 

Sylvic    forms    of 154  f.f. 

Thinnings  in 144,  152 

Underplanting   in 144,   152 

Weeding  in 144,  145 

Seeding,  cutting 126 

Direct   seeding 50,     54 

Stage  of  natural  seed  regeneration 120 

Seedlings,  age  and  size  to  be  used 74 

By   species 94  f.f. 

Criteria  of  quality  of 73 

Of   hardwoods   and   softwoods 94  f.f. 

Number  per   acre   used 74 

Planting   in    furrows 70 

Planting  in  holes 77 

Planting  of 71 

204 


ALPHABETIC     IiNDEX 

Seedlings — Continued.  page 

Of  softwoods 98  f .f . 

Protection  of 92 

Transplanting  of 76,     91 

Seed   planting  in   nurseries 90 

Seed   planting   machines 90 

Seed,  quantity  per  acre  used 55 

Quantity  per  seed  bed  used 90 

Eegeneration 107 

Tests 49 

Years 49 

Seeds,  extraction   of  seeds  from  cones 51 

Malting  of 54 

Of   trees 48 

Season    for    planting 58 

Storage   of 54 

Selection   form   of   sylviculture 156 

Selection  types  (methods)  of  natural  seed  regeneration.  120,  134,   14/) 

Shade  bearers   and   light  demanders 37 

Shade  bearing  leaves 13 

Shelterwood  types   (methods)   of  natural  seed  regeneration 122 

Single   tree   method 116 

Soil  as  a  sylvic  factor 17 

Soil   covers 20 

Spiral   spade 78 

Sprout   forests 174,  179  f.f. 

Sprout  forests  defined 30 

Sprout   forest: 

Culled    sprout    forests 178 

Cultured    sprout   forests 179 

Described   by   species 180 

Forms  of  sprout  forests 177 

Genesis  of  sprout  forests 174 

Pedagogic   of   sprout  forests 176 

Spruce   seed   forests 171 

Spruce  seedlings 98,  104 

Spruce   seeds,   planting   of 67 

Standard   form 156 

Standards    in    coppice 183 

Strip  types   (methods)   of  natural  seed  regeneration.  ..  117,  130,  137 

Struggle  for  existence 32 

Stump   sprouts 174 

Systems  of  sylviculture,  see  forms 

205 


ALPHABETIC     INDEX 

T  PAGE 

Tamarack  seedlings 09 

Tanbark,  raising  of lt)3 

Tendance   of   seed   forests 144 

Tendance  of   sprout  forests ITG 

Thinnings : 

In  composite   forests 185 

In  seed  forests 144,  147 

In  sprout  forests 177 

Tolerant  and   intolerant   species 37 

Toungya 198 

Transplanting  in  the  nursery 91 

Treatment  of  the  various  forms  of  forests 1.57 

Tree   planting  in  Europe 49 

Two-storied  seed  forests 157 

Types   of  natural   seed   regeneration Ill  f.f. 

U 

Underplanting  in  seed  forests 144,  152 

Underwood  in  the  composite  forest 184 

W 

Walnut    seed    forests 107 

Walnut   seedlings 97,  100 

Walnuts,    planting    of C2 

W^eeding : 

In  composite   forests 185 

In  nurseries. .' 92 

In  seed  forests 144,  145 

In  sprout    forests 17U 

Weed  ti-ees 143 

White    Pine    seed    forests 172 

White    Pine    seedlings 98 

White  Pine  seeds,   planting  of 09 

Wind  as  a  sylvic  factor 10 

-       Y 

Yellow   Pine   seed  forests 173 

Yellow    Pine    seedlings 98,  104 

Yellow  Pine  seeds,  planting  of 68 

Yellow   Poplar  seed   forests 169 

Yellow    Poplar    seedlings 96 

Yellow   Poplar   seeas,   planting  of 66 

200 


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